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NOAA Technical Report NMFS SSRF-778
pee Oy, Bowhead and White Whale
& Ye %, : : : : ;
s * Migration, Distribution,
mt) Sf and Abundance in the
“5
Bering, Chukchi, and
Beaufort Seas, 1975-78
Howard W. Braham, Bruce D. Krogman, and
Geoffrey M. Carroll
January 1984
Aan HSON lA v~
4
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i
Ne RARIES
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Marine Fisheries Service
NOAA TECHNICAL REPORTS
National Marine Fisheries Service, Special Scientific Report—Fisheries
The major responsibilities of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) are to monitor and assess the abundance and geographic distribution of
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722. Gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus, purse seine fishery: Catch, fishing
activity, and age and size composition, 1964-73. By William R. Nicholson.
March 1978, iii + 8 p., 1 fig., 12 tables.
723. Ichthyoplankton composition and plankton volumes from inland coastal
waters of southeastern Alaska, April-November 1972. By Chester R. Mattson
and Bruce L. Wing. April 1978, iii + 11 p., 1 fig., 4 tables.
724. Estimated- average daily instantaneous numbers of recreational and com-
mercial fishermen and boaters in the St. Andrew Bay system, Florida, and adja-
cent coastal waters, 1973. By Doyle F. Sutherland. May 1978, iv + 23 p., 31
figs. 11 tables.
725. Seasonal bottom-water temperature trends in the Gulf of Maine and on
Georges Bank, 1963-75. By Clarence W. Davis. May 1978, iv + 17 p., 22 figs.,
5 tables.
726. The Gulf of Maine temperature structure between Bar Harbor, Maine, and
Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, June 1975-November 1976. By Robert J. Pawlowski.
December 1978, iii + 10 p., 14 figs., 1 table.
727. Expendable bathythermograph observations from the NMFS/MARAD
Ship of Opportunity Program for 1975. By Steven K. Cook, Barclay P. Collins,
and Christine S. Carty. January 1979, iv + 93 p., 2 figs., 13 tables, 54 app. figs.
728. Vertical sections of semimonthly mean temperature on the San Francisco-
Honolulu route: From expendable bathythermograph observations, June 1966-
December 1974. By J. F. T. Saur, L. E. Eber, D. R. McLain, and C. E. Dorman.
January 1979, iii + 35 p., 4 figs., 1 table.
729. References for the indentification of marine invertebrates on the southern
Atlantic coast of the United States. By Richard E. Dowds. April 1979, iv + 37 p.
730. Surface circulation in the northwest Gulf of Mexico as deduced from
drift bottles. By Robert F. Temple and John A. Martin. May 1979, iii + 13 p.,
8 figs., 4 tables.
731. Annotated bibliography and subject index on the shortnose sturgeon, Aci-
penser brevirostrum. By James G. Hoff. April 1979, iii + 16 p.
732. Assessment of the Northwest Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus, stock.
By Emory D. Anderson. April 1979, iv + 13 p., 9 figs., 15 tables.
733. Possible management procedures for increasing production of sockeye
salmon smolts in the Naknek River system, Bristol Bay, Alaska. By Robert J.
Ellis and William J. McNeil. April 1979, iii + 9 p., 4 figs., 11 tables.
734. Escape of king crab, Paralithodes camtschatica, from derelict pots. By
William L. High and Donald D. Worlund. May 1979, iii + 11 p., 5 figs., 6
tables.
735. History of the fishery and summary statistics of the sockeye salmon, On-
corhynchus nerka, runs to the Chignik Lakes, Alaska, 1888-1956. By Michael
L. Dahlberg. August 1979, iv + 16 p., 15 figs., 11 tables.
736. A historical and descriptive account of Pacific coast anadromous salmomid
rearing facilities and a summary of their releases by region, 1960-76. By Roy
J. Wahle and Robert Z. Smith. September 1979, iv + 40 p., 15 figs., 25 tables.
737. Movements of pelagic dolphins (Stenella spp.) in the eastern tropical Pa-
cific as indicated by results of tagging, with summary of tagging operations,
1969-76. By W. F. Perrin, W. E. Evans, and D. B. Holts. September 1979, iii
+ 14p., 9 figs., 8 tables.
738. Environmental baselines in Long Island Sound, 1972-73. By R. N. Reid,
A. B. Frame, and A. F. Draxler. December 1979, iv + 31 p., 40. figs., 6 tables.
739. Bottom-water temperature trends in the Middle Atlantic Bight during spring
and autumn, 1964-76. By Clarence W. Davis. December 1972, iii + 13 p., 10
figs., 9 tables.
740. Food of fifteen northwest Atlantic gadiform fishes. By Richard W.
Langton and Ray E. Bowman. February 1980, iv + 23 p., 3 figs., 11 tables.
741. Distribution of gammaridean Amphipoda (Crustacea) in the Middle At-
lantic Bight region. By John J. Dickinson, Roland L. Wigley, Richard D. Bro-
deur, and Susan Brown-Leger. October 1980, iv + 46 p., 26 figs., 52 tables.
742. Water structure at Ocean Weather Station V, northwestern Pacific Ocean,
1966-71.. By D. M. Husby and G. R. Seckel. October 1980, 18 figs., 4 tables.
743. Average density index for walleye pollock, Theragra chalcogamma, in the
Bering Sea. By Loh-Lee Low and Ikuo Ikeda. November 1980, iii + 11 p.,
3 figs., 9 tables.
ATMOS,
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NOliwesS
NOAA Technical Report NMFS SSRF-778
Bowhead and White Whale
Migration, Distribution,
and Abundance in the
Bering, Chukchi, and
Beaufort Seas, 1975-78
Howard W. Braham, Bruce D. Krogman, and
Geoffrey M. Carroll
January 1984
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
John V. Byrne, Administrator
National Marine Fisheries Service
William G. Gordon, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries
PREFACE
This is a final report from Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program (OCSEAP)
Research Unit 69/70 supported by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and is for the period
September 1975 to March 1978. Because a great deal of additional research has been conducted since
1978, as part of an expanded National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) program, we felt it important
to update our original unpublished final report submitted to OCSEAP in September 1979 in order to
reflect some new data, clarify past statements, and in general provide more timely information for
managers. The title of the first edition 1979 report was ‘‘Population biology of the bowhead whale
(Balaena mysticetus) II: Migration, distribution, and abundance in the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort
Seas, with notes on the distribution and life history of white whales (Delphinapterus leucas).”’
This report is not comprehensive because our OCSEAP research was general in scope and the entire
study area could not be covered completely. Some of the new information added to this report came
from other programs supported by the NMFS from 1978 to 1981.
Some of the recommended research we propose in this report, dating back to 1978, have been under-
taken through BLM. This report, however, does not reflect recent research directly supported by
them. Again, we do not claim to have covered the breadth and depth of bowhead whale research, and
recognize that much more work is needed on both species.
The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) does not approve, recommend
or endorse any proprietary product or proprietary material mentioned in this
publication. No reference shall be made to NMFS, or to this publication fur-
nished by NMFS, in any advertising or sales promotion which would indicate or
imply that NMFS approves, recommends or endorses any proprietary product
or proprietary material mentioned herein, or which has as its purpose an intent
to cause directly or indirectly the advertised product to be used or purchased
because of this NMFS publication.
CONTENTS
i Prtirreye Ueto ay ic, RAR Sai Sg EE Re RN CUR des! cAI Sia cen Mat ici a Ean ae OL Mae ob tates 2 A eee same is a J io
Studyaneatand (datasources paces sec atch eer eser opr teres Syne asec teas eee ds e alfar ee omy saa et ey eat cbc Payay UNC ase te ava) tc ekeyay a ropene eens fo
STAT To bY EV (ers ape i, LORS ee toe sree atte RURLG, ce Ree eRe in AG ae 9A ene eI eo ee dar ME Reto Ee hie ot
IDET Semi is-e 0.0. Geet Bene CE EERE 6-6 CR eRe RS Ge ities Ramee naan aie Paar Ey Sian, nr Gate Mat dct clac c ot
Methodstandlmatertal st sacterryn eee, arora ite serene (Aer Mer hota Mi eats amoMer. APE RE Ith: Ck 1 Ast Rao ee 1 eae eae
RCekandiland Campsie: es saree eevee ace erste Me coaray Sreyee ver St iro Me aIReD cy cy ope SP tue chs Ren ee VOM ena Ae PORE are A
JAGHEUIIIRT ees SS ARM e LAR en GH RES imo ib WO etki Heh tt Gandia oi OUMNH nats c caLU RAN Sens nici Acie re ceie eels ciaom
[ea Or alOny ACUIVAGLES ctr cs cer ce ee Cu eA he tctt eee ema Seen Ste raett ria tet ah ec MRR MLL ett UL ERR ye ore A Re Vee cr
Review ohibowheadsstocksaec anc cs acicc cuss stich treet eenn Set ad aed PATTY OO ee eon wei Dia aCe DSi tee aE Sa ee a lara
Spits bergen=Barents}SeaiStOcks ra-tvcitee 7 ach Weer eh es Me eR aloes aoe t oy ray os ee RSV TSI lal tte eWcbaes Gy Mey sop re a Ay
Wrest Greenland OmbDavis straltisto Gkasmscrrse near ise Ae eo wu tee sd Oi Tenian ee poe en O va bh S Ey yal cen te et ee
Wiestenn Anctic= Bering SEaStOCKsa a ieccatte eu atve Rca tale ea cst Vie sash Atle aemne atcaae seh RonecceSts oioWade Pacerreysy cut acemsbreRelspey aura ie eee vey
@MRKHOPSKES CA StO GK see hee ee ee cea aa et NERA 5 CTR ta EA ALICE CARMA Came MDa ATA ANE aly ny Salter!
Este CereESCATCIRESUL ES usar ene ee secre a resco SEL ge REN MGR Ee Sa raya Gael ORES SCT Fea eel eee Ee OSE ST CT ee ee
Spring countsiofmisratine/bowheadssiceandilandicampsiemrisetr cui esehloc ere isisps ee hater aetsene eta kegs earn
BET ARONWy Premiere mics Serre tty Scitech 6 at tste ce ROSTERS cS a Gils cf ce HE ee nesEs ole ETE ENA aU tcl Cer en ESE ee eR ERR ert eR a ges et
Gapelleisburne=Rointy kyo pews oe ee eee ee ae errs aes aces oR ey OP ETT eT AES Oboe ef yA Pea Se ee re
Aenial:sunveysioti bowhead:andiwhiteswhalesiiacccncranr citer ncs ster op at tesemen at seatey rae se oinL ee HA ne SeCVE Teed Asati ay haat ewe
DISCUSSION ANGIE VIE Wire, Lies ce aR ays the be Fann APU reer asp ewe cara ise map enter fied eo Uebel MVP Eat a LOR e Pa PSOE Ee eK. Rn
WesternyArctic-Bering Seal populationio fsbowheadiwhalesys yeiserin ccreebe store: ctegtcey et seen mee caiey raar s aretig ae el vieue gan eae *
Distributionsandimigratio nyse sy tesa aS a alice VA oy aaa eE Me es at bra Quek cmtrapaNll A Dont a elena alt is at adial sea fete entacar a ae
Eifehistoryiandassociatedhin formato secrete eerie Re ore ar aoa red alc oyna ee SOAP AED Pe PR
REPrOductrOrins < cet cre sne cies enone rasta caL reacted a ane ee rere Bett eg Ae PAN ieee oft REE Ra dL Le TOR UDR eet Ue pee ar
POST TEV e} (eteiso a crotro Ge cero ae GcaGie 8 GO eo ECOeS Cake Sire eee icra a te eater tet eho HOR onan HE Rina oe Deaton cotter
Beh avian ese tet se ane Re a ST TL RRP CNR aR ar BA RS MRA AN | ee
Mccurrence\o fibowheadsiniouter continentalishelfileaserareasts tem Mie tacey tse este setav ae sige) clcetaies einleeda ties Sece\ fg he eed cara
@uterBristol/Bay-StGeorgeiBasiny eons wc cicce ee ee yates aston Aes wpa acu cy Syanetons Care cusee EY beth sitter ey Sie ce ee ae
INaVanin’ Basins yes coercive cesses en tee mil cance Cou eC en A EURATE ARE, GoM LC I ER AI arta aR ME ORS LELAND, eae Able fears
INortoniSound-northenniBering:Seaisca cos rve ms os sete See ie eae cU Ayo are eter ae er ear a fd cis check atop
HopelBasinyand northeastenm(GhukcChitSeavy sein ne screen ic lash cesta ee ee reteta este inert pete ieea aa eae
Beaton Seatac: ric sat aes terse cyalstapteysteg so ey ties URIS ee aiceees Es geysers IM dee ag Rts UL SUA roa gaye as re
Eastcofilongitude'l50 Wi... Gaia fz ne eee ara coy otk eters id es] een eg a eR CTO oe a ae
Wrest: ofilongitud en] SOW spss. 3 ovens spa cecttcvare! facie craters MEA cep sve MNO a tty gle Cae rend JA lM RL eal eon i ee
Axquestion of species:identity: bowheadjingurukaneht whaler veces ets actress pei neeaten hc teak heir eased pean eee ae
ELISCORICATIEVIGEN CE! sie se teee eh Re Steet TS ee Ne eee SEA esi UGE Pate ea Lect do CUA he ik URS
INomenclaturer ns scalars a wen ete enema tes Tu rn RE Ca hele are <A ROMER REI aE UU eyo SE Ian Ur UA DRS SR Praca
Geosraphic isolations. o-y.:c ire see ereke cee ae eee nea PEE aE nL EN aru ey ence en ea oe ac aaa eae PES ge ect ON
Biglogicalievid ence ite a so cxecpc Se eceeie et eee asctee ret ee ease oa te Ee nies Real NSE ND A) ee ded
Morphologicalhfeanu res say c.se reese irgcs seco eee eae ES aT ee ane ee ene ToT TR Lea ie SL A La are
SExiaNnGlSiZe;CateONIZAOM eras alee ee NT sal heig en Le ps ea et OPP eee ge PEA pee ma
Genetic-biochemicalistudies yates ch) mines eases cca tes aT aS PPA MN Real CAH Gee los aie dee AL ie
(Clot Ve IS (0) eee Res eR erp et eae lara OnE Oh RAAT Gaye. AANA TUEMOR Cn TMAEMLS SLi Re Reem eer Al oe
Wihiteswhales invA askale cer ccyeteccr eres cpar terra iene ene ost ne eo IS eC EHNA IE St aM ay tra SESE ALA Mat aa cA
ASDUNGANCE/AN GiGISELI DUCTION se ceraye se encteg cessor exc vote che eh eer Ss Sais RTL SCTE ey I ly el ce Ses ree ae eta fe ara Se
I BTS (AVY a reese pens Ole cee HCE Aceh Sie Foca OTIS EC te Cone Teeter tae aataT tas erga tenn meat sy cee see bi di
WenititiysOL{StOCKS) crc. cu: zie a eet ic ae ee ee one A ue coer Soe REE OL ULB Ae ir Meu sae) AT Leni ALI pap
Kifeshistonyjandiassociatediinformationy ce ae cei .rras sera see ee eee Te ene Cea eee
IREPTO GAUCHO epee perce eres eee hee CIS ere ere OTR TT 2 ar PRTC) anal CPA ULE (ale nar Con ees
OOGINADIES seven eras ne AVete oe uate cetceepen eet atic ea eta e ea Weichaa ea oe ea etn syle nue ey ate eye Pa a a a
GLOUPICOMPOSICIOM ty sterstae essere Oe tele ree ene eA SAT Sa ar ene Me NAS eee oc Un treD baeeeeaN
Recommendation Sprraccra ty ae sate Retin ison Lene err oe coy ea Ta ale NONLUO aTess sic SN CAPR ey ORD yao Ue LE
ATES WER C NOCH) aon olor Ge pou oPSis H Abo Rea Ube Gaon 6H bio Sr oe nbd Hat cone Ue anigakecd omonoeneE
Proposediresearch need Siyeciy. treme rar reictseeereeiee teres eee te a tare sedi ahe tn ar MAR Ov aR ardcte a ver eA
BETIS SCAmA pee en RPV eye crn GN era err on Lanny Aue y epte oi AAR AS Nore nt ae a SR TREND De a
Chukchi Sea
| ESPNU LO) Aa SSLSPEV acres wars hcl Pen ENG teh, ete en ma ahaa) MARL lc ele Ween i ead WL Lay UALR
Non-site specific studies
Acknowledgments
MSIF ETACUITE CIE SCL Pry. bres Aeris Neem me Nee IMU ES UNE PAUL FILES 1 Pl MEVERORL I cURL Ay serrlt al LALO APM ce Ge Dec opeL a eae a fac Mat
MTSPSCTUGEXAL orate nese Peystisy se tet eres ee eMart se Parriey oa espn SEDANS Te CTS dota aE eRe ere ate MESON ce Acs) SERIS oe Ry ek
Appendix II
ili
CCH ODWWWHWWWNNNN — — —
\o
WN
Figures
Approximate world distribution of bowhead whales prior to commercial exploitation .....................2....00. 4
Locations where bowhead whales were harvested by Yankee whalers ........... 02.000 eeeececececece ete ssenuns 5-7
Comparison among years of estimated total number of bowhead whales migrating northwardly past Pt. Barrow,
AlaskattromvllorA prilitoySOUM AY, < ccc. cce.- «.ekelere:cieceresessioveros > die ce, sr esayateral spevetorsyeve 4 alejaue a Dole] et TRE nS ee 8
Comparison among years of observer effort expended from 15 April to 30 May ................. 2.0.00 eee eee eee 9
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the northern Bering Sea, March 1976..................... 9
Aerial survey tracklines and bowhead observations in the Bering Sea, April 1976 ... 0... 0... ese eee eee ees 10
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the Bering Sea, April 1976................. 0000 e eee e ees 10
Aerial survey tracklines and bowhead observations in the northern Bering and southern Chukchi Seas, March-April
NOT S65 ons bic 0b DEOL OR DIO OO Ree to a a ae eee een ee ne MPS a cs dno dagio cece 0.0 0100 00.06 11
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the northern Bering and southern Chukchi Seas, March-April
MOTT oy bao kod Goole ees an Hit ee EPL ee es Oe a Per aE RCP rime odiaen tte His ao ob.oooccoc 11
Aerial survey tracklines and bowhead observations in the eastern Chukchi and southern Beaufort Seas, April and May
NOG sa. c-cou chan oa A i0 to OAS SEG eee eae ea a ee ne RS AR eI erica sb ah aoe biSUEw OCD Oo00s 11
. Aerial survey tracklines and bowhead observations in the eastern Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas, May 1976..... 1]
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the eastern Chukchi and Beaufort Seas, April-May 1976 .... 12
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the eastern Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas, May 1977 .. 12
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the eastern Bering and southeastern Chukchi Seas, May
Oi ee reese et aha teh aie seilh glove us Geavaudyentcear au e-Uyo) dug sl soos dincy ahebecd a: asta} aulelepniey othe HORSES ALG EERE NCO EI Cee 12
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the western Beaufort Sea, May 1977 ..................25. 13
Aerial survey tracklines and bowhead observations in the eastern Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas, early June
TEL ORR Pe Pesaro bo sete esto crc oeche ake 15) 8 dekh oe ane WEES Beg ata © ai wad abs be kat Se cateanse CLEA Soe eERSTEE Ve ater cee 13
Aerial survey tracklines and bowhead observations in the northern Bering and southern Chukchi Seas, June 1976.... 13
Aerial survey tracklines and bowhead observations in the eastern Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas, mid-June
DIT Gp eeee cet N ce seal creche ees ateils SS barcnalls sosabeee ois analdicdoe vetahaly atbusiet hs apetes edsequase apts amd. gpaltatinua ce toupee pee nc RC RR GE (AGE oo AN eg 14
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the eastern Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas, early June
NID i7 Geter nyse terre sence tscanc cou aves hb dena Ab wpe eu dey #1 sgarsdadelegua canag lane, lg arson: oebeed acahaneuty are ahd dete ICT ee 14
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the northern Bering and southern Chukchi Seas, June
N77 Oar eet ets cakiesshe cts. svete apshahe na thieia, coe Ghd she ona, dha oua.ts Has gutta aehal apallayel a, Soo stee RAPE Ee Sh 14
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the eastern Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas, mid-June
WG Geer erect h rect clans lial Ses, alis so bsacehe tediot' pevin den spapah'vias ee edluny oes ld tapas ada teltoyretell wausten ade aes SOME es Ua 14
Aerial survey tracklines and bowhead observations in the northern Bering, eastern Chukchi, and western Beaufort
SeastyAUs usta Gha es aie scgcsnscdase. ay peice gee ecaiten alle wees ite, hav ayace, Bear oe Ra) a. pip eee SUE ae Ec Seo Se 15
. Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the northern Bering, eastern Chukchi, and western Beaufort
SCASMATIOUS HMO Oy tees ca Sie, scat sce cy sag coe coh Wid dSSranstp Gok gn si Guspe asiisl avas"ual eraneiete ayens coperey siG) oe geet eaRe P YSUEOT eR OLS erea ae 15
Aerial survey tracklines and bowhead observations in the eastern Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas, September
NAO eee becsosisyepect esis ne rele yelas sccythatantce itvcastacel avdsabaagSCSSHE bas MoM ules ales do Sictepeeay age neds-o eke eae i ngetle cog ge a ea ae rr 15
. Aerial survey tracklines and bowhead observations in the eastern Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas, August-
(Oye vce Indie COM Ooh eee ae eee A ree omen esr hi ood Ga oueob od od ouelod saac0¢ 16
Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the eastern Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas, September
IDG aece saa Meee Ota en a nee Meier CGE Tens oi Bec gadebooces ococe 16
. Aerial survey tracklines and white whale observations in the eastern Chukchi and western Beaufort Seas, August-
October Miiimeen wre ceed fev att crepe tiemeanebanenttte orci doueks sea, tuneacisrasibwaracepss badutrene ste le HOR Haste aR ceed es CLEP ee 16
. Aerial survey tracklines in the northern Bering and southern Chukchi Seas, October 1975................000-00005 16
Bowhead whale sightings in the Bering and southern Chukchi Seas, 1974-79, from aerial and vessel surveys.......... 17
Bowhead whale sightings in the Beaufort Sea, August through November 1974-78 ........---. 00000 eeeeeeeeeeeeee 19
aeAchialisunvey tracklines flown by NMFS scientists; September 1974 «0/22 .\c. se an ese ees eee eee 20
. Sightings of white whales during aerial surveys conducted between the months of March and September 1975-77 ..... Dy
Tables
. Summary of spring counts of bowhead whales during their annual spring migration through the flaw zone near Bar-
ONg ANE al) os LGN Sine Isa i a an re re Ere MA aT oY Lecdeh o.dos:o GocoS 600000
Summary of some estimated reproductive life history data for bowhead whales ...............2.0.. 000022 ee eeee 21
. Area use and timetable for the majority of the bowhead whale population in or adjacent to proposed Outer Continen-
tallShelifileaserareasiofithe Bering} Chukchi; andiBeaufort Seas) .. 1... 4. . joeeee eee eee Eee oe eee 24
Sightings of bowhead whales within and adjacent to the existing Beaufort Sea Outer Continental Shelf lease area be-
nhwecnlonemlsOsandyl45iowawithinithe2imidepthicontounc.. .seesccee ene eee ee een Eeeer ene 25
Bowhead and White Whale Migration, Distribution, and
Abundance in the Bering, Chukchi, and
Beaufort Seas, 1975-78
HOWARD W. BRAHAM, BRUCE D. KROGMAN, and GEOFFREY M. CARROLL!
ABSTRACT
From September 1975 to September 1977 we conducted field research on bowhead, Balaena mysticetus, and
white, Delphinapterus leucas, whales in the U.S. Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas. The objectives were to de-
termine the general distribution and migration of these whales in spring and autumn and to estimate abundance.
We also surveyed the literature beginning in June 1975 through March 1978 to augment our empirical results.
Bowhead and white whales spend the winter months among the pack ice and open water of the central and
western Bering Sea. They migrate into the eastern Chukchi Sea and across the southern and central Beaufort Sea
from April through June. Their route takes them along the west side of the northern Bering Sea through Bering
Strait, along the northwest coast of Alaska between Point Hope to Point Barrow, generally within 50 km of shore
(closer to Point Barrow than off Point Hope and Cape Lisburne), and offshore in the Beaufort Sea generally to
within 60 km of the coast. Exceptions exist, and these are pointed out in the text.
It appears that virtually the entire bowhead migration follows this pattern; however, white whales may be
divided into groups (or stocks) of varying sizes, some occurring in Bristol Bay, Norton Sound, Kotzebue Sound,
and along the northwest coast of Alaska during summer. The largest component of the white whale population
migrates into the Canadian Beaufort Sea in spring at roughly the same time as the bowheads. Autumn migration
results were not obtained, generally, for either species.
The 1978 minimum estimate of the size of the bowhead population was 1,800 to 2,900 individuals, and for
the white whales occurring in Alaskan waters between 9,000 and 16,000 individuals.
INTRODUCTION
In 1975 the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assess-
ment Program (OCSEAP) Office awarded a contract to the
Marine Mammal Division (now the National Marine Mammal
Laboratory) of the Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center,
NMEFS, to study the bowhead whale, Ba/aena mysticetus, and
white whale, Delphinapterus leucas, in the Bering, Chukchi,
and Beaufort Seas. The objectives were to summarize the
current state of knowledge on each population, define migra-
tion routes and timing, and make an estimate of population
size from original field research and a review of the literature.
Field research was funded from September 1975 to September
1977.
This report is the final of two reports written under OCSEAP
contract number R7120807, research unit 69/70. Braham and
Krogman (1977)? covered our first full year’s research, 1976.
All significant research findings, including those already re-
ported on in our other OCSEAP reports, are incorporated
into this report. This document is an update of the final re-
port submitted to OCSEAP in September 1979.
During the course of our field research, information was
acquired on spring movements of whales from St. Lawrence
Island to Point Barrow. Research on bowhead and white
whale distribution south of St. Lawrence Island was not ex-
National Marine Mammal Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service,
NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.
*Braham, H. W., and B. D. Krogman. 1977. Population biology of the bow-
head (Balaena mysticetus) and beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) whales in the
Bering, Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. Processed rep., 29 p. Natl. Mar. Mammal
Lab., Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600
Sand Point Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.
tensive, nor was much information found in the literature.
Also, our understanding of distribution in the Beaufort Sea
was fragmentary, coming from scant data from our research,
from Eskimo informants, and from early commercial whaling
accounts. At the time this contract was active, specific oil
lease sites were not known. Therefore, our research was
directed only at a general understanding of these species.
In 1978, the National Marine Fisheries Service expanded its
research on bowhead whales, with the principal objectives of
determining population size and obtaining information on
life history parameters. Data acquired during the 1978 and
1979 field seasons are reported in Braham et al. (1979, 1980c,
d, e). Further analyses, and reports, are continuing. Where
applicable, information from these papers is presented here.
The bowhead whale is the most depleted marine mammal
occurring in Arctic and sub-Arctic waters of the Northern
Hemisphere. Under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, no
human activities of any kind can take place which are likely
to jeopardize the continuing existence of a species or popula-
tion. Proposed OCS development for oil and gas in the Beau-
fort, Chukchi, and Bering Seas includes habitat essential for
the survival of this population.
Results presented in this report represent the first research
funded by a U.S. Federal agency to provide baseline infor-
mation on the endangered bowhead whale in relation to pro-
posed OCS development.
STUDY AREA AND DATA SOURCES
Study Area
The study area included the eastern Bering Sea, the Chuk-
chi Sea east of the USA-USSR 1867 Convention Line, and
the Beaufort Sea to the United States-Canadian border at
long. 141°W.
Sea ice covering the Chukchi Sea begins to advance south
in early October from its most northerly limit near lat. 72°-
74°N and extends well into the Bering Sea through June dur-
ing average ice years (Shapiro and Burns 1975). Sea ice is
present winter and spring over most of the intercontinental
shelf of the northern and eastern Bering Sea and occurs in-
frequently in the southwestern Bering Sea. With the progres-
sion of winter, landfast ice develops most extensively in bays
and inlets that are protected from the shearing forces of
mobile drift (sea) ice. Landfast ice increases outward from
shore to the 12-30 m depth contour. Along the northwest
coast of Alaska from Point Hope to Point Barrow in spring,
a persistent flaw or transition zone occurs between the land-
fast ice and pack ice where open water often is found. These
Open water pathways are called leads when they are long and
thin; when the openings are persistent and lake-like, they are
called polynyas. The importance of polynyas has recently
been summarized by Stirling (1980). It is this transition zone
which is used by migrating bowhead and white whales. The
transition zone may exceed 50 km in width near Cape Lis-
burne and Point Hope during some years (pers. obs.; Burns
et al. 1977°); east of Point Barrow into the Beaufort Sea the
zone occurs farther offshore (Marko 1975).
Shelf waters of the Beaufort Sea are typically ice-free from
late July to September or early October, but northernly winds
may keep or blow the pack ice near or against the coastline
at any time (Blood 1977*).
Data Sources
Aerial surveys were used to study the spatial distribution
of bowhead and white whales throughout the Bering, Chuk-
chi, and Beaufort Seas. Data collected during these surveys
have been digitized, stored in the National Marine Mammal
Laboratory computer file library (Appendix I), and submitted
to the Environmental Data Service (EDS), NOAA.
Spring migration and temporal distribution of bowhead
and white whales along the northwest coast of Alaska were
studied from ice and land stations near Point Barrow, Cape
Lisburne, and Point Hope. Since data collected at these field
sites during 1976 and 1977 were analyzed by hand (not digi-
tized for computer analysis), they were not submitted to EDS.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Ice and Land Camps
During the spring migration, counts of bowhead and white
whales were maintained on a 24-h basis as conditions allowed
at the following localities: Fast ice edge near Point Barrow
(25 April-2 June 1976 and 19 April-3 June 1977); cliffs at
‘Burns, J. J., L. H. Shapiro, and F. H. Fay. 1977. The relationships of marine
mammal distributions, densities, and activities to sea ice conditions. Jn Environ-
mental assessment of the Alaskan continental shelf, annual reports of principal
investigators for the year ending March 1977, Vol. 1, Receptors mammals.
Unpubl. rep., p. 503-554. U.S. Dep. Commer., Natl. Oceanic Atmos. Admin.,
Environ. Res. Lab., Boulder, Colo.
“Blood, D. A. 1977. Birds and marine mammals: the Beaufort Sea and the
search for oil. Unpubl. rep., 12 p. Beaufort Sea Project, Dep. Fish. Environ.,
Can.
Cape Lisburne (6-15 May 1977); and fast-ice edge off Point
Hope (18 April-28 May 1977). One or two observers stood
4-h watches.
As whales moved past observers, the following informa-
tion was scored: Number of animals; direction of travel;
general behavior; weather conditions; time of day; and, when
possible, length of time animal(s) spent at the surface and
duration of dive.
In 1978, an upgraded counting effort was conducted at
Point Barrow, Alaska, using two counting stations (Braham
et al. 1979). The camps, called South Camp and North Camp,
worked with each other, 15 April-5 June. South Camp ob-
servers made the primary counts and, through radio com-
munication to North Camp, North Camp observers evaluated
South Camp’s results. The watch schedule during 1978 was
two observers per shift rotating each 3 h. Documentation of
current ice camp counting procedures and theory is reported
in Krogman et al. (1979)’ and Krogman (1980). In addition
to the Barrow counts, counting was conducted at Cape Lis-
burne 2 April-7 June 1978.
Aerial Survey
Aerial survey procedures were designed to delineate near-
shore and offshore distribution of whales, frequently over
pack ice conditions. We flew the aircraft over open water—
the leads or polynya—at elevations of 70-300 m depending
upon cloud cover. Data collected on bowheads and white
whales during OCSEAP studies RU 14 (Krogman et al. 1979°)
and RU 67 (Braham et al.’) are included in this report. Aerial
survey methodology for RU’s 14 and 67 differed in the place-
ment of flight tracks in that for those studies (walruses and
seals) tracks were flown as straight lines irrespective of sea ice
coverage. Because this report presents aerial survey results by
showing only tracklines and geographic positions of sightings,
the two methodologies of aerial survey (systematic flying
Over Open water versus straight tracklines) are analytically
equivalent although no estimate of abundance is generated
from either method. Aerial surveys were not flown to make
estimates of bowhead abundance. This method was deter-
mined to be impractical (experimentally) and too costly.
Four aircraft types were used during the surveys for whale
distribution: A single engine Cessna from Cape Smythe Air
Service, Barrow, Alaska; a twin-engine Grumman Otter char-
tered from the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow,
or Cape Smythe Air Service; a twin-engine Grumman Goose
and a Lockheed P-2V both chartered from the Office of Air-
craft Services, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage,
Alaska. Depending on the aircraft used, one to five observers
‘Krogman, B. D., R. M. Sonntag, H. W. Braham, S. Savage, and G. W.
Priebe. 1979. Arctic Whale Task ice camp survey format 1979 version. Unpubl.
manuscr., 60 p. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600
Sand Point Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.
*Krogman, B. D., H. W. Braham, R. M. Sonntag, and R. G. Punsly. 1979.
Early spring distribution, density and abundance of the Pacific walrus (Odo-
benus rosmarus) in 1976. Unpubl. rep., 47 p. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl.
Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA
98115.
"Braham, H. W., R. D. Everitt, B. D. Krogman, D. J. Rugh, and D. E. With-
row. 1977. Marine mammals of the Bering Sea: Preliminary analysis of distribu-
tion and abundance, 1975-76. Processed rep., 90 p. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab.,
Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand
Point Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.
were used; the usual crew of two observers, one recorder,
and one person resting aft rotated hourly to reduce observer
fatigue. For the study period 1976-78, the Grumman Goose
was by far the more frequently used aircraft.
Information recorded included species identification; num-
ber of adults and/or calves; local time of sightings; geo-
graphic position to 1 square nmi obtained from an onboard
Global Navigation System-500; perpendicular angular dis-
tance from aircraft to animal(s) taken with an optical read-
ing clinometer (Model PM-5/360 PC, by Suunto Oy of Fin-
land); animal activity; and environmental data on weather,
visibility, and ice. Complete documentation of aerial survey
methodology used for this research is reported in Krogman
et al. (1979)°.
Laboratory Activities
Ice and land camp results are presented by locality by year.
Length of season, total number of hours watched, percent of
total hours watched, total number of whales counted, and
indices to total number of whales passing by the counting
camps are presented. Bowhead abundance indices for spring
seasons 1976 and 1977 were computed as the sum of the
products of rates per day for each day times 24 h. Histo-
grams showing the daily index are used to illustrate temporal
distribution that-occurred during each field study. Indices are
presented for bowheads only. The temporal distribution of
white whales was too clumped to calculate a meaningful
index.
Aerial survey results are presented in computer plots show-
ing effort and sighting data. Numerical results accompanying
the figures include the total number of adults and immatures
observed, average group size, and standard deviation (SD) of
average group size. A plot of all tracklines flown in 1976 and
1977 is displayed in Appendix II.
REVIEW OF BOWHEAD STOCKS
Rice (1977) recognized four bowhead whale populations or
stocks worldwide: 1) From Spitsbergen west to east Green-
land, called the Spitsbergen stock by Tomilin (1957) or Spits-
bergen-Barents Sea stock by Jonsgard’; 2) in Hudson Bay,
Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, and James Bay, called the West
Greenland stock by Tomilin (1957) or Davis Strait stock by
the International Whaling Commission (IWC) Committee of
Scientific Advisors (IWC 1978); 3) Bering, Chukchi, and
Beaufort Seas, called the Bering-Chukchi stock by Tomilin
(1957), Bering Sea stock by the IWC (1978), or the western
Arctic population by Durham (1972)'° and Bockstoce (1977);
and 4) in the Sea of Okhotsk. Mitchell (1975) recognized five
stocks, treating a Hudson Bay stock as isolated from the
West Greenland stock. Figure 1 is an overview of the species
distribution prior to commercial exploitation.
*Krogman, B. D., R. M. Sonntag, and H. W. Braham. 1979. Arctic Whale
Task aerial survey format 1979 version. Unpubl. manuscr., 30 p. Natl. Mar.
Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Bldg.
32, Seattle, WA 98115.
A. Jonsgard, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway, pers. commun. 7 February
1979.
'°Durham, F. E. 1972. Biology of the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus L.)
in the western Arctic. Unpubl. manuscr., 93 p. Univ. Southern Calif., Dep.
Biol., Los Angeles, CA 90500.
Commercial whaling severly reduced the Spitsbergen stock
during the 17th century, the West Greenland stock during the
18th century, and the western Arctic-Bering Sea and Okhotsk
Sea stocks during the 19th century (Tomilin 1957; Braham
and Krogman footnote 2; Bockstoce 1978'').
Spitsbergen-Barents Sea Stock
Bowheads from this stock apparently wintered south of the
area bounded by the eastern coast of Greenland, Iceland,
and Jan Mayen Island, to Spitsbergen (Tomilin 1957). Their
northeasterly spring movement was associated with the reces-
sion of the ice front, with some whales arriving at Spitsber-
gen in April (Clark 1943). By early summer, most of the
population was found between Greenland, Spitsbergen, and
the Barents Sea, with some animals occurring south along the
coast of Greenland when sea ice coverage was extensive (Vibe
1967). A southerly migration was made during autumn along
the Greenland coast and open winter areas of the coast.
From an initial population estimated at 25,000 (IWC 1978),
the Spitsbergen-Barents Sea stock underwent a gross reduc-
tion in size as a result of intensive commercial whaling (Vibe
1967). This stock 1s now considered to be nearing extinction
(Jonsgard 1981, footnote 9). Reeves (1980) recently com-
pleted a review of the stock.
West Greenland or Davis Strait Stock
Recent information on the seasonal distribution of bow-
heads in this stock is lacking. However they apparently winter
in southern Davis Strait from Godhaven southwest to approx-
imately lat. 60°00'N. Migration to summering grounds is
closely associated with the northerly retreat of the ice front.
The summering area and migration routes include northeast
Baffin Bay as far north as Smith Sound (Clark 1943), the
waters between the islands of the Canadian Arctic Islands
and as far west as Barrow Strait (Gilmore 1951), Lancaster
Sound, and Prince Regent Inlet (Lubbock 1937). Animals
apparently winter also in Hudson Strait and southcentral and
western Hudson Bay. In summer, animals move to the north-
western part of Hudson Bay and Foxe Basin (Gilmore 1951;
Ross 1974). Sex and age segregation within the population
was reported by Southwell (1898) to be that older males
occurred more often in open water than females and young
who were associated with the pack ice front. The initial stock
size was estimated at 6,000 and the current level is believed to
be 10% of that (IWC 1978). However, since so few animals
have been seen in this century, it seems likely that the present
population size is smaller than the 10% estimated.'? Mans-
field (1971) believed the stock was recovering; recent studies
have not confirmed this (Davis and Koski 1980).
Western Arctic-Bering Sea Stock
The distribution of bowheads in the western Arctic-Bering
Sea stock prior to commercial exploitation (1848) can be in-
"'Bockstoce, J. R. 1978. A preliminary estimate of the reduction of the west-
ern Arctic bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) population by the pelagic whal-
ing industry: 1848-1915. Unpubl. rep., 33 p. U.S. Mar. Mammal Comm., 1625 |
St. N.W., Wash., DC 20006.
"R. Davis, LGL Ltd., Toronto, Can., pers. commun. 30 June 1979.
“uoreylojdxa [eissauIW09 0) JoLNd sajeyM pkayMog Jo UONNGUISIP pom ayeunxosddy —"T aun
oO
of es Y)
VoI¥aWY HLYON
-- F wal 44 se1uey> 4
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NoO9
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7 fa
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ferred from Townsend’s (1935) charts which locate by month
bowhead whales taken by Yankee whalers (Fig. 2). The whal-
ing grounds were within lat. 53° to 73°N and long. 120°W to
175°E. Whaling occurred in the Bering Sea from April to
July and, in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas, generally from
August to October. The lack of harvest records north of the
Bering Strait during April and May is explained by the avoid-
ance of heavy ice by whalers. Very few whales were taken in
the eastern Bering Sea, suggesting that the species was for-
merly distributed off the continental shelf in the southwest
Bering Sea and over the shelf in the west central and northern
Bering Sea during the winter, spring, and early summer
months.
Wrangel |.
CD,
SIBERIA
°
>
Lawrence I.
Bering Sea
xe spara-
Initial stock size estimates range from 9,000 to 40,000
(IWC 1978; Bockstoce and Botkin 1980'*), with a best esti-
mate of about 18-20,000 (IWC 1978; Breiwick et al. 1980;
Bockstoce footnote 11). The stock was exploited commercially
from 1848 to approximately 1921. An estimate of the popula-
tion size in the early 1900’s is 600-2,000 (Eberhardt and
Breiwick 1980). For further details of commercial exploitation
'Bockstoce, J. R., and D. B. Botkin. 1980. The historical status and reduc-
tion of the western arctic bowhead whale (Ba/aena mysticetus) population by the
pelagic whaling industry, 1848-1914. Unpubl. rep., 120 p. Natl. Mar. Mammal
Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Bldg. 32,
Seattle, WA 98115.
ARCTIC OCEAN A
Beaufort Sea
Chukchi Sea ‘y
nC
xy Oe
& ALASKA
CANADA
=A
NING
NS
Gulf of aN
Alaska
Figure 2.—Locations where bowhead whales were harvested by Yankee whalers in A,B) April and May 1848-1919; C,D) June and July
1848-1919; and E-G) August, September, and October 1849-1919. Each black dot represents a single harvested whale. Data redrafted by
month from Townsend (1935).
and whaling activities refer to Marquette (1976, 1977'*),
Bockstoce (footnote 11), and Marquette and Bockstoce (1980).
Okhotsk Sea Stock
Bowheads were generally found in the northern and western
Okhotsk Sea in spring and summer. They once occurred as
far north as Penzhinskaya Inlet and as far west as Tchantar
Bay (Townsend 1935). During spring, they were also taken as
far south as Korea and Japan (Townsend 1935; Nishiwaki
and Kasuya 1970). Today, their seasonal movements are un-
‘Marquette, W. 1977. The 1976 catch of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus)
by Alaskan Eskimos, with a review of the fishery, 1973 - 1976, and a biological
summary of the species. Processed rep., 80 p. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., North-
west and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point
Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.
known. During the late 1850’s, as it became more difficult to
find bowheads in the Bering Sea, whalers turned their atten-
tion to the Okhotsk Sea, and soon depleted this stock. Initial
stock size has been estimated at 6,500 (IWC 1978). Although
inconclusive, recent results of Bockstoce and Botkin (foot-
note 13) leads us to conclude that intermixing between the
Okhotsk Sea and the Bering Sea stocks may have taken place
in the past, but probably not since the late 19th century.
Sighting records supplied by A. A. Berzin'* indicate that
bowheads still occur in the Okhotsk Sea: 16 bowheads were
sighted during surveys in 1973-74. Fifty-five bowheads were
seen in the south-southwest Okhotsk Sea during an August
aerial survey in 1979 (Berzin and Doroshenko 1981).
*A. A, Berzin, Pacific Scientific Research Institute of Fisheries Oceanography
(TINRO), 20 Lenin St., Vladivostok, U.S.S.R., pers. commun. 7 January 1976.
Figure 2.—Continued.
“+ SEPTEMBER
{>
2
“~ OCTOBER
F
Figure 2.—Continued.
FIELD RESEARCH RESULTS
Spring Counts of Migrating Bowhead Whales:
Ice and Land Camps
Barrow
Counts of bowhead whales were made 25 April-2 June 1976,
19 April-3 June 1977, and 15 April-S June 1978 at the near-
shore lead northwest of Point Barrow. These periods coincided
with the annual northeasterly spring migration of bowhead
whales from their winter grounds in the Bering Sea to summer
feeding grounds in the Arctic Ocean. Summary data for these
three census years are presented in Table 1. The estimate of the
number of whales passing the camps during the census periods
was not, for 1976 to 1978, considered to be a total population
estimate. A more detailed comparison of indices among years
for the period 15 April-30 May is reported in Braham et al.
(1979, 1980c) and Krogman (1980).
Table 1.—Summary of spring counts of bowhead whales during their annual
spring migration through the flaw zone near Barrow, Alaska. Indices of abund-
ance (‘‘Index’’) were computed as the sums of the products of daily rates times
24h (see Krogman 1980 and Fig. 3).
Total Total Percent
Counting hoursin hours period Bowheads
Year period period watched watched counted Index
1976 =. 25 Apr.-2 June 936 392:25 42 330 762
1977. 19 Apr.-3 June 1,104 395:12 36 327 715
1978 15 Apr.-5 June 1,248 1.108:44 89 1,389 '2,276
‘In Braham et al. (1979) an estimate of 2,264 was given for the period from 15
April to 30 May. The value of 2,276 has a range of uncertainty of approximately
(—481 to + 601) around the value, and will be further adjusted as results of bias
analysis dictate.
The 1978 estimate of 2,276 was higher than indices of 762
achieved in 1976 (revised from 796, originally quoted in
Braham and Krogman footnote 2), and 715 in 1977 (Fig. 3).
The increase in counts is attributable to several factors: 1) In-
crease in survey effort (period of watch); 2) better survey
location; 3) environmental conditions; and 4) increase in ob-
server effort.
Figure 4 partially illustrates the increase in survey effort by
comparing the number of hours watched per day during the
same time frame among years. These histograms illustrate the
variation in watch effort among years. For all years the stra-
tegy was to maintain an unbroken 24-h watch schedule. In
1976 and 1977, the period of OCSEAP funding, this watch-
effort strategy was undermined by fog, closed leads, unstable
ice conditions, and a limited number of observers. This was
not so during 1978, the first year of the NOAA, NMFS ex-
panded bowhead research program.
In addition to the outstanding environmental conditions in
1978, another factor contributing to the increase in the esti-
mate was a change in location of the ice camps. During 1976
and 1977 the primary location for counting was 10-20 km to
the southwest of Point Barrow, where our observers stationed
themselves near Eskimo whalers. In that vicinity, the lead is
generally 11-32 km in width, whereas immediately northwest
of Point Barrow, where the 1978 camps were located, the
lead width is generally 1-11 km wide. During 1978 the lead
1976
=
<
{a}
e I5 18 21 24 27 30 3 6 9 12 I5 18 21 24 27 30
fe |} aPRiL } MAY 4
n
eb
a) \977
< 200
ae
=
150
mw
o 100
« 50
WW
ale
5 5 18 21 24 278.30. 3%ie 9°12 IS i8) fel) te4asionso
2
— APRIL - MAY =
eo
aq
ee
io)
b
IS) 18. al 24 27, 30%53, 16. 912) SIS ISiire linea raesO)
May —————_|
b APRIL {
Figure 3.—Comparison among years (1976-78) of estimated total number of
bowhead whales migrating northwardly past Pt. Barrow, Alaska, from 15 April
to 30 May. For purposes of comparison, totals are based on hourly rates per day
times 24 h.
was open wider than 0.5 km approximately 94% of the time
providing us with an unusually long time period to watch for
whales. The median as well as mean (of means) lead width,
23 April to 1 June 1978, at Barrow as 3.70 km (SD = 2.94,
n = 38) as calculated from data in Brueggeman (1980). A
lead width of 5 km or less is considered ideal for viewing
bowheads.
Another important factor contributing to a higher count
during 1978 was the increase in observer effort. The 1978 ob-
server schedule called for two observers per 3-h rotating
watch; in previous years single observers rotated every 4h.
Observers at South Camp conducted all watches from an
unusually high perch (ice ridge) in 1978. Height of the eye at
South Camp was approximately 11.8 m above sea level yield-
ing a view to the horizon of 10 km. Observers in 1976 and
1977 were located on young ice with eye height of 2-4 m,
yielding a view to the horizon of 4-6 km.
BwlSercli sca jmesO) Semoun One mloneISsmelin et 27e750
| ___ ppRi 4 MAY 4
me (24 =
is 1977
b 20
<<
= 16
12
w
Oo
8
no i
ce
=
oe Un
= Is I8 21 24 2730 3 6 9 [2 15 18 21 24 27 30
| ___ apRic 4 MAY |
5 18 21 24 27 303 6 9 l2 I5 I8 21 24 27 30
- APRIL }
MAY ——————_
Figure 4.—Comparison among years (1976-78) of observer effort (total hours of
watch/hour) expended from 15 April to 30 May. The schedule for 1976 and 1977
called for rotating single observers every 4 h, whereas the 1978 schedule called
for two teams of two observers each (four total) to rotate every 3 h. Percent of
total survey hours watched were: 1976 = 37.0%; 1977 = 35.8%; 1978 = 86.7%.
Cape Lisburne-Point Hope
Counts of bowhead whales were made 6-16 May 1977 at
Cape Lisburne, Alaska. This was a feasibility study which
resulted in 54 bowhead whales counted during 72 h of watch.
Based upon results of the 1977 study, a full scale counting
study was conducted 2 April-7 June 1978 (Rugh and Cubbage
1980). Results of that study indicated that: 1) Spring migration
of bowhead whales past Cape Lisburne commenced during the
latter half of April; 2) bowheads generally pass Cape Lisburne
on a northeasterly course; 3) bowheads usually require 3-5 d to
traverse the corridor from Cape Lisburne to Point Barrow; 4)
our counting camps at Point Barrow were established before
whales passed Cape Lisburne; and 5) few if any whales moved
past Point Barrow beyond 1 June. These results, and those
from aerial surveys, indicated that the 1978 counts made at
Point Barrow probably can be used to estimate abundance.
Counts of bowhead whales were made at Point Hope from
18 April to 28 May 1977. A total of 185 bowhead whales was
observed during 546 h of watch. Two waves of movement
apparently occurred that year, the first during late April and
early May and the second during the latter half of May.
Aerial Surveys for Bowhead and White Whales
Approximately 75,000 km of tracklines were flown during
96 flights over the 1975-77 study period. For ease of analysis
and reporting, these surveys have been chronologically and
geographically ordered into 16 sets (Appendix I). Survey re-
sults are reported by month; no surveys were flown during
November-February.
Statistics presented in figure captions associated with aerial
surveys are total number of whales counted, mean group size,
and standard deviation of group size. Whale counts from the
air were used as a relative indicator of how many whales
were present in any given area. Group size described the
number of whales observed in ‘‘close association’? which
were counted at any one moment. When more whales sur-
faced, they were tallied as new sightings. Thus, mean group
size is downward biased since only a subset of the total group
was visible near the surface at any given time.
March and April
1976
From 15 to 21 March 1976, four surveys were flown in the
vicinity of St. Lawrence Island. South of St. Lawrence Island
teedetp tr bebe betes rect
! a Ke, ionede
| & W
) Chukchi = / [lc /
= Peninsula
aie Ro
th | g¢
SS]
+
1-H ee
Hs
LS “i
oP nie Hes
We a ~ :
4 aN St. Lawrence = |
eal SS y cn
4 SS N d L
q Bering Sea laine
Lf
Hope a a roy] 62
need Rana Raa Rane GAGs GARE
172 66
Figure 5.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the northern Bering Sea on 15, 18,
19, and 21 March 1976. No bowheads were observed. Dots depict the presence of
white whales: a total of 39 were counted with a mean group size of 2.8 and a
standard deviation (SD) of 2.3. Note: tracklines are not continuous because
effort was periodically broken in time; plots were drawn by computer and thus
reflect the actual route taken by the aircraft.
thin ice coverage was extensive. North of the island there was
nearly 90% ice coverage and pack ice was thick. No bowhead
whales were observed. White whales were most common just
northwest of St. Lawrence Island (Fig. 5).
During the 6-23 April 1976 survey pack ice was thick be-
tween lat. 64° and 65°N in the vincinity of St. Lawrence Island.
South of lat. 64°N pack ice was of medium thickness. Ice
coverage at this time of year was still extensive: 70-100%;
80% coverage was most common. Large expanses of 100%
coverage occurred northwest of St. Matthew Island. South-
east of St. Matthew Island, and in Bristol Bay, sea ice was
extensive to the southern limit indicated by aerial survey
tracklines (Fig. 6). .
No bowheads were seen during the 6-23 April 1976 survey
in Bristol] Bay (Fig. 6)'®. Three bowheads were observed in
the northern Bering Sea, one on 19 April about 20 km south
of Little Diomede Island (Bering Strait), migrating north-
easterly in a lead.
‘One bowhead was observed on 9 April 1976 west of the Pribilof Islands by
Patrick McGuire, National Marine Mammal Laboratory, from the NOAA ship
Surveyor.
69
—Cape Lisburne
Point Hope
Kivalina
67
JSS ees
ipigallonlileye Te
Is.
See eee
fF +
a
oH
He
:
i,
WS 169 GS Sy
Figure 6.— Aerial survey tracklines flown on 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22, and 23 April 1976. Each of the three dots represent a sighting of a bowhead
whale. No bowheads were observed below lat. 63°N.
White whales were observed most often in the region from
northwest of St. Lawrence Island to the Bering Strait during
the 6-23 April 1976 survey (Fig. 7). Twenty-five white whales,
18 adults with 7 presumed immatures (grey skin) were seen
on 9 April in Bristol Bay (Fig. 7).
1977
In the region near St. Lawrence Island, aerial surveys were
flown 31 March-3 April 1977 (Fig. 8). No bowheads were ob-
served in Norton Sound, but a pair was observed southwest of
St. Lawrence Island and another, or one of a pair, observed
later in the same area. Two more were observed in the lead just
southeast of the Bering Strait.
During the 31 March-3 April 1977 surveys white whales were
most common north and west of the west end of St. Lawrence
Island, and in a large polynya off the coast of the Seward
Peninsula (Fig. 9).
May
1976
Results from the 30 April to 14 May 1976 (Fig. 10) and the
15 to 31 May 1976 (Fig. 11) aerial surveys indicate that the
aaeeee
Chukchi Sea
69
-
Ws 169 NOS IS?
Figure 7.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the Bering Sea on 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15,
17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23 April 1976. Dots depict presence of white whales: a
total of 135 were counted with a mean group size of 5.4 (SD 6.2).
ees thes
q ~~ 5 LI
} 4 Las
im Chukchi Sea |
|
ce
64
)
INO
Figure 8.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the northern Bering and southern
Chukchi Seas 31 March and 1-3 April 1977. The two dots represent presence of
bowhead whales: a total of 5 whales were sighted with a mean group size of 1.7
(SD 0.6).
T ] Fal ira T
1 ; 1 i ID oOo!
i qT ie
1 Beaufort Sea =
HH 4 72
| 4 > Lt
4 1
aa eee \
Hi / 70
pen
LH
ro f-—
CAFE EEE bo
167 161 155 149 143
Figure 10.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and southern
Beaufort Seas on 30 April and 1, 3, 8, 9, 12, and 14 May 1976. Dots represent
presence of bowhead whales: a total of 68 whales were counted with a mean
group size of 1.3 (SD 0.86). Whales were observed in the nearshore lead only in
the Chukchi Sea.
11
68
66
64
62
160
Figure 9.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the northern Bering and southern
Chukchi Seas 31 March and 1-3 April 1977. Dots represent presence of white
whales: a total of 370 whales were counted with a mean group size of 4.6 (SD 4.5).
NO
iep)
[o8)
arate etal
164
(ao a
158 152
Figure 11.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and western
Beaufort Seas on 15, 19, 20, 22, 24, 28, and 31 May 1976. Dots represent presence
of bowhead whales: a total of 30 whales were counted with a mean group size
equal to 1.2 (SD 0.82). Whales were observed in the nearshore lead only in the
Chukchi Sea.
northeast migration of bowhead whales along the northwest
coast of Alaska (Chukchi Sea) occurred in the nearshore lead.
No bowheads were seen nearshore in the Beaufort Sea.
From Figures 12 and 13 it is apparent that white whales were
more widely distributed in the Chukchi Sea than bowheads.
They were observed to the northerly limits of most aerial sur-
veys offshore to approximately 60 km, indicating that they
penetrate the pack ice even farther north than bowheads.
White whales were also common in the nearshore lead.
odds hy
Masasa
FAA
143
EEE
149
=
ion}
1 |
Figure 12.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and Beaufort
Seas on 30 April and 1, 3, 8, 9, 12, and 14 May 1976. Dots represent presence of
white whales: a total of 485 whales were counted with a mean group size of 3.9
(SD 5.5).
eee eee eee EEE PEE
pee 4
Chukchi Sea
sans anno
64 158
mi
Figure 13.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and western
Beaufort Seas 15, 19, 20, 22, 24, 28, and 31 May 1976. Dots represent presence of
white whales: a total of 289 whales were counted with a mean group size of 6.0
(SD 7.4).
12
1977
Aerial surveys flown from 11 to 14 May 1977 (Fig. 14) in the
southeastern Chukchi and eastern Bering Seas revealed no
bowhead whales. It was not expected that bowheads would be
observed in the area surveyed from Norton Sound south.
A herd of white whales was encountered on the 11-14 May
survey in Kotzebue Sound (Fig. 14). Six adult white whales
were observed in Norton Sound; eight, including one imma-
ture, were observed south of Norton Sound. The trackline
leading south from Norton Sound followed near the fast ice
edge to Nunivak Island. No white whales were observed in
the open water south of Nunivak Island.
The hypothesis we proposed, that spring migrating white
whales use leads offshore in the Beaufort Sea (Braham and
Krogman footnote 2), is further substantiated when white
whales were observed as far as 150 km north of Point Barrow
but not nearshore along the north coast of Alaska in the
Beaufort Sea (Fig. 15). The fact that no bowheads were seen
is probably a reflection of fewer animals present nearing the
end of their spring migration (Fig. 3).
LH
OD
ea)
OD
~J
——.»-@
Seward 3}
Peninsuta
(op)
UO)
Norton
Sound
Be Ee ee
Oo)
OO
(op)
UO)
(ee)
hi cs asenns aaa RaSeeeTEETEnEEEEEaeTeseee
160
Figure 14.— Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern
Bering and southeastern Chukchi Seas on 11, 12, and 14
May 1977. No bowhead whales were seen. Dots repre-
sent presence of white whales: a total of 272 whales were
counted with a mean group size of 4.5 (SD 7.6).
Ree S seee a See ese Sas Sess osos saad ay
1 H
H la i
i / rT |
HH / 1H
it po |
le HH 72
ee va Beaufort Sea AL
| 7 Sie
Hep HL
| us tT
[ee a cele ; a
ii = = : ce T REN ce 70
CaS REE EEE EERE EEE EEE
155 149 143
Figure 15.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the western Beaufort Sea on 21 and
30 May 1977. No bowhead whales were seen. Dots represent presence of white
whales: a total of 26 whales were counted with a mean group size of 1.5 (SD 2.5).
June
1976
In early June 1976 the bowhead whale migration along the
northwest coast of Alaska (Chukchi Sea) was still confined to
the nearshore lead. From Figure 16, however, it is evident that
few bowheads were present in the study area. During the 8-14
June (Fig. 17) aerial surveys in the southern Chukchi and
northern Bering Seas, two bowheads were observed just south
of the southern limit of the pack ice edge. They may have been
waiting for a lead to open, since the pack ice appeared solid
Bee Et 4 HH
AS
=i
EE meet ele
elk
A | SSR
JOO),
Figure 16.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and western
Beaufort Seas on 1, 4, and 5 June 1976. Dots represent presence of bowhead
whales: a total of 20 whales were counted with a mean group size of 1.8 (SD 1.1).
13
ey
oa
waaad nasaaaa ba ee
orn
O)
CO
pert tie
<c
les
Seward ®°
oe
cPeninsula
OD
ep)
O)
iS
O)
NO
Spe ele
163 Loy
169.
Figure 17.—Aerial survey tracklines in the northern Bering and southern Chuk-
chi Seas flown on 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 June 1976. The dot (highlighted by
an arrow) represents two bowhead whales seen just south of the ice front. One
whale, a large adult, remained stationary at the surface for the 5-10 min period
we surveyed the area.
north of their location. By 18-20 June 1976 the bowhead mi-
gration along the northwest coast of Alaska was essentially
over; during aerial surveys flown in the nearshore leads only
one animal was observed (Fig. 18).
The 1-5 June 1976 survey along the northwest coast of
Alaska verified that white whales were still present in the
Chukchi Sea (Fig. 19). On 1 June, 153 white whales were
observed at lat. 70°59’'N, long. 158°41’W. All other sight-
ings were of 12 or fewer whales.
Eighteen adult white whales were sighted near the mouth
of the Yukon River on 14 June 1976 (Fig. 20). White whales
were not encountered elsewhere during the survey, which
suggests that most had left the north Bering Sea by June and
that the Yukon Delta sightings were of a group which sum-
mers in Norton Sound.
The Chukchi and Beaufort Seas were again surveyed 18-20
June 1976 (Fig. 21). Only two sightings of white whales were
made: 12 adults were observed at lat. 70°39'N, long. 161°47’ W
on 19 June, and 49 adults with 12 immatures were observed
at lat. 69°28’'N, long. 164°10’W on 20 June.
ee OS
1
161 155 149 143
Figure 18.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and western
Beaufort Seas on 18-20 June 1976. The dot (highlighted by an arrow) represents
one bowhead whale seen.
PEER See eee eee EES | 79
7] Chukchi Sea / tr} 79
H f itl
f--— rT]
vunesaeeaeaee FERRER ne
1
(op)
on
SHS)
ray
U1
ww
Figure 19.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and western
Beaufort Seas on 1, 4, and 5 June 1976. Dots represent presence of white whales:
a total of 177 whales were counted with a mean group size of 11.1 (SD 32.0).
July
No aerial surveys were flown in July 1976, 1977, or 1978.
August
Aerial surveys were flown on 17-26 August 1976 over open
water (Fig. 22). Four bowhead whales were observed together
on 19 August east of Point Barrow.
Sighting records of bowhead whales from other OCSEAP
contractors have been sent to us. In August 1975 Carleton
Ray'’ sighted 74 bowheads northeast of Icy Cape (about lat.
70°34'N, long. 161°00'W). Ray’s data and ours from 1975
suggest that at least some bowheads may not have been able
to complete their migration into the Beaufort Sea that year
because of the heavy pack ice. Ice did not restrict their migra-
tion, however, from 1976 to 1978.
"C. Ray, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., pers. commun. 21 Janu-
ary 1978.
14
Chukchi Sea
66
feist
i
Seward
- Peninsula
Hr luad
2
v
a
¢
N,
ee
a
64
[
|
HEH af
62
60
coche Et
Sea tae
News
38
WS)
Figure 20.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the northern Bering and southern
Chukchi Seas on 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 June 1976. Dots represent presence
of white whales: a total of 18 whales were counted with a mean group size of 1.6
(SD 1.4).
Le REE ERE EERE EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE EE EEE EEE ] 7.3
t tr
Bu ant Beaufort Sea iT]
Aileen a . tH 71
E 4. S oo ee i
q ie
Hs,
CSEEEEEEREEEEEEEEEEEEEPEEE PEPE i
161 55 149 143
Figure 21.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and western
Beaufort Seas on 18, 19, and 20 June 1976. Dots (highlighted by arrows) repre-
sent presence of white whales: a total of 73 whales were counted with a mean
group size of 36.5 (SD 34.6).
Seven white whales were observed during the 17-26 August
1976 survey (Fig. 23). Five were observed in Norton Sound,
none were seen in the Chukchi Sea, and two were seen in the
north central Beaufort Sea.
1} |
LY |
~]
isu)
E ais
fs
=
=
aa
7 iE |
iz
=
HS, [eke ry
as> |i : cL
rie iF ite ve rr] 6S
Iie FR LH
[Sel fie ;
Ho Saal tr] 83
ma ae : i t Ht
Lo T SESS 1 zi 6
PES EEE EEE EER EEE PEPER EEEREEEEEEEEET ©!
Gen ice hich). Ise | 46 “142
Figure 22.— Aerial survey tracklines flown in the northern Bering, eastern Chuk-
chi, and western Beaufort Seas on 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26 Au-
gust 1976 during bird surveys conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
The dot represents 4 bowhead whales seen just east of Pt. Barrow in open water.
[-E EEE EEE EEE J
1-H —— | | | Beaufort Sea IT
| chukchg—} = "OAS || imi eal
+{ seal | lp ote
77 | ea Pea NG
Hees ett
Pe = rH 67
— | E LI a
HH gs
LT |
CI 63
+t 61
Figure 23.— Aerial survey tracklines flown in the northern Bering, Chukchi, and
western Beaufort Seas during bird surveys conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wild-
life Service on 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26 August 1976. Dots repre-
sent presence of white whales: a total of 7 whales were counted with a mean
group size of 1.2(SD 0.4).
September and October
During the 20-26 September 1976 survey an aggregration of
bowhead whales was observed nearshore from Smith Bay to
Point Barrow (Fig. 24). The highest count was 47 on 21 Sep-
tember. Several animals were observed to be stationary at the
surface with their mouths open; they appeared to be feeding.
The area between Smith Bay and Point Barrow may be a stag-
ing area for migrating whales and/or an important feeding lo-
cation during years of high invertebrate production. It is likely
these animals, and perhaps more, summered in this region in
1976. A few Eskimo whalers from Barrow have told us that
this is not an uncommon occurrence. Tracklines were flown
offshore during this period in 1976 but no bowheads were
observed.
Results were inconclusive as to whether or not bowheads
congregate every year nearshore east of Point Barrow. Dur-
ing a 12-22 September 1974 aerial survey by Fiscus and Mar-
quette'* many bowheads were observed near Cape Simpson;
the highest count, 57, was made on 18 September 1974. Dur-
ing the 26 August-13 October 1977 survey, however, only
seven bowheads were observed in the area (Fig. 25). Of sig-
nificance, though, was that most of the 1977 sightings were
made offshore, probably of whales on their return migration
from the Beaufort Sea into the Chukchi Sea.
Although the data are sparse, they indicate that bowheads
move west and south in September. We have, as does C. Ray,
sightings that place bowheads at three locations during Sep-
tember: 1) East along the northern coast of Alaska to within
'*Fiscus, C. H., and W. M. Marquette. 1975. National Marine Fisheries Ser-
vice field studies relating to the bowhead whale harvest in Alaska, 1974. Pro-
cessed rep., 23 p. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent.,
Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle,
WA 98115.
Seeeeeee 93
bey tH fap
17 Sea
|
Wl
Chukchi Sea
69
fot
157 15
Figure 24.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and western
Beaufort Seas on 20, 21, 22, 24, and 26 September 1976. Dots represent presence
of bowhead whales: a total of 102 whales were counted with a mean group size of
2.7 (SD 3.5).
|
pls — Ht
a ~\ | tt
E os | | | 1
<
LH / | Beaufort Sea H |
1 ieee : | i
1 chukchi sea Be. 2 H
E Vole 4 Dee NC EL
-
th
|
4
Ed
gE
=e
EPEAT
165 159 153 147
Figure 25.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and western
Beaufort Seas on 26 and 29 August 1977; 1, 5, 8, 10, and 14 September 1977; and
3, 6, and 13 October 1977. Dots represent presence of bowhead whales: a total of
7 whales were counted in September and October with a mean group size of 1.2
(SD 0.4). No whales were observed in August 1977.
100 km of Point Barrow; 2) south of Barrow along the coast
to Peard Bay, lat. 70°50'N, long. 158°30’W; and 3) west of
Point Barrow some 100 km into the Chukchi Sea.
One white whale was observed during the 20-26 September
1976 survey (Fig. 26). Eighty-nine white whales were ob-
served on the 26 August-13 October 1977 survey (Fig. 27).
The westward migration of white whales past Point Barrow
appears to be predominantly offshore.
No bowheads were seen on the 9-14 October 1975 survey
conducted over the southern Chukchi and northern Bering
Seas (Fig. 28). A. Berzin'® reported seeing bowhead whales
near the Soviet coast of the Chukotka Peninsula during sur-
"9A. A. Berzin, TINRO, Magadan, U.S.S.R., pers. commun. 14 February
1979.
Se ee a ee eat
ii LI
f Jie Ne
iH vA / |
du yy + |
Uf Beaufort pall | .
Chukchi Sea 71
===
1 ° 10
{
= iti etal sn
163 157 151
Figure 26.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and western
Beaufort Seas on 20, 21, 22, 24, and 26 September 1976. The dot (highlighted by
an arrow) represents one white whale seen.
SReSSeie:
ta
Chukchi Sea
Seba
a
sueiiinailt
165 159
Figure 27.—Aerial survey tracklines flown in the eastern Chukchi and western
Beaufort Seas on 26 and 29 August 1977; 1, 5, 8, 10, and 14 September 1977; and
3, 6, and 13 October 1977. Dots represent presence of white whales: a total of 89
whales were counted with a mean group size of 4.0 (SD 3.5). All but 3 of the 89
whales were observed on 10 and 14 September.
: EEE E EEE EEE EEE | 59
Chukchi Sea———_____\_ t |
t 4
| \
| eda
ea
ane Ht
ee i
rT] tis, ) 6
TI wiSs Pag ¥ So seaward 3
=hi| ¥ wane Peninsula - nly
| : CL]
ia TT
C
——
64
aseseaeaaa!
62
60
(vee
“any
HEE
ka
N
‘
a
chebebeo bee et bt edt ba
2
EH
Fi
Li
a
ia Le
170 164 158
Figure 28.— Aerial survey tracklines flown in the northern Bering and southern
Chukchi Seas on 9, 12, and 14 October 1975. No bowhead or white whales were
observed.
veys conducted in October 1974 and 1975 (Fig. 29). His sight-
ing (in Fig. 29), commercial whaling records (Fig. 2), and our
results reported in Johnson et al. (1981) indicate that at least
some, and perhaps most, bowheads migrate to the northern
coast of Siberia in the autumn before moving south through
the Bering Strait and into the Bering Sea to their wintering
grounds.
170° E
UrAS =
180° 175° W 170° W 165° W 160° W
Wrangel |
O April (1976-79)
Figure 29.—Bowhead whale sightings in the Bering and southern
Chukchi Seas, 1974-79, from aerial and vessel surveys. October sight-
ings were provided by A. Berzin, pers. commun. For greater detail
see Braham et al. (1980b).
loa
70° N
CHUKCHI
O June ( 1976-77) Lp Rowen
hed
0) August (1976) . G Sound
A October (1974-75) :
Chukotskiy
Peninsula
65° N
Anastasia Bay
In Bogoslof | ®& Nunivak |
“St. Matthew | 60° N
°
ZS
BERING SEA %,
aN
ve 55° N
Twenty large, apparently adult bowheads were observed
north of Point Barrow at lat. 71°N between long. 156° and
157°W on 22 October 1978 (Savage 1978*°). The animals
were following a large, slow moving ice floe and appeared to
be feeding. As ice appeared to cover the Beaufort Sea east of
long. 152°W on this date, Savage felt that these sightings
were made near the end of the autumn westward migration.
Details of the few other sightings made in October 1978 and
the unsuccessful aerial survey effort of the area around Prud-
hoe Bay in September 1978 are reported in Braham et al.
(1980d).
DISCUSSION AND REVIEW
Western Arctic-Bering Sea Population
of Bowhead Whales
Distribution and Migration
Bowhead whales of the western Arctic-Bering Sea stocks oc-
cur seasonally from the west central Bering Sea northward
along the coast of Siberia and around St. Lawrence Island in
the northern Bering Sea, throughout the Chukchi Sea, and in
Savage, S. 1978. Distribution of B. mysticetus and D. leucas in the Beaufort
Sea, October 1978. Unpubl. manuscr., 11 p. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl.
Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA
98115.
Aleutian Is. , © Vi
a
,
: Bae atc
PEACH EE te ONCE SARIN,
fewer numbers in the eastern East Siberian Sea, and eastward
throughout the U.S. Beaufort Sea to Banks Island and Amund-
sen Gulf, Northwest Territories, Canada (Fig. 1).
The exact location of the wintering area for bowheads is not
known, but the western and central Bering Sea appear to be
the most probable location (Sleptsov 1961; Durham footnote
10; Braham and Krogman footnote 2; Braham et al. 1980b, c;
Brueggeman 1982). Results from our icebreaker survey in
March and April 1979 indicated that bowheads winter in the
west central Bering Sea pack ice (Braham et al. 1980c). Com-
ments made to Braham by A. Berzin (footnote 19) indicate
that in some years a few bowheads may winter in open water in
the Gulf of Anadyr. The waters around St. Lawrence Island
are occupied intermittently by bowheads, dependent upon
open water, from approximately December to April (Braham
et al. 1980c, d). Past whaling records and reported observa-
tions by Alaskan Eskimos support the hypothesis that bow-
head winter distribution is south and west of St. Lawrence
Island to the pack ice front and perhaps farther south into
open water. Townsend’s (1935) records of bowhead whale
catches and recent data from Bockstoce and Botkin (footnote
13) show that large numbers of whales were taken from Cape
Olyutorskiy north to the Gulf of Anadyr, U.S.S.R., and ad-
joining waters during early spring and summer during com-
mercial whaling when bowheads were more abundant than
now. Few whales were taken or have been observed in the east-
ern Bering Sea, despite extensive aerial and shipboard surveys.
Of those sightings in the eastern Bering Sea over the Continen-
tal Shelf, most were in the vicinity of the Pribilof Islands
(Townsend 1935) and St. Matthew Island (Hanna 1920;
Braham et al. 1980c). In April 1976, at least two bowheads
were seen in outer and southern Bristol Bay representing the
most southeastwardly sighting of the species (Fig. 29).
The northward spring migration of the bowhead whale from
the Bering Sea is timed with the breakup of the pack ice (Bailey
and Hendee 1926; Foote 1964*'; Nishiwaki 1967; Durham
footnote 11). This generally occurs in April (Sleptsov 1961;
McVay 1973) or earlier in a mild ice year (as in 1979). At that
time, most whales travel north through the Strait of Anadyr,
between St. Lawrence Island and the Chukchi Peninsula, con-
tinuing north by northeast through the Bering Strait probably
on the Soviet side, west of Big Diomede Island (Braham et al.
1979). During an ‘‘average’’ ice year, apparently few animals
migrate through the eastern half of the northern Bering Sea—
heavier ice usually occurs there than to the west. Even so,
Eskimo whalers at Wales periodically take bowheads along the
Alaska coast near the Bering Strait (Marquette footnote 14;
Johnson et al. 1981). Most of the migrating animals have
passed through this corridor between St. Lawrence Island and
the coast of the Chukotka Peninsula by mid-May (Bailey and
Hendee 1926; Foote footnote 21; Durham footnote 10; Bur-
gess 1973; Braham and Krogman footnote 2; Braham et al.
1979, 1980c).
Upon entering the Chukchi Sea the migration is northeast-
erly across outer Kotzebue Sound in leads occurring in the
flaw zone. A few whales move into a polynya that character-
istically forms between Kivalina and Point Hope, but most
whales move past Point Hope, some offshore to 45-90 km
(Braham et al. 1980b). A few whales might migrate into the
western Chukchi Sea in spring; however, this is unlikely since
pack ice is extensive with few leads north of the Chukotka
Peninsula (Braham et al. 1979; G. Fedoseev**). Apparently,
Siberian Eskimos living along the north side of the Chukotka
Peninsula did not hunt bowheads in the spring as did their
counterparts along the east side of the Peninsula (A. Berzin,
footnote 19).
Proceeding northerly on a heading of 10°-20° magnetic
(Braham et al. 1980d) bowheads follow open leads north past
Cape Thompson and Point Hope and then northeasterly to
Cape Lisburne and Point Barrow. The migration past Cape
Lisburne seems to follow two or more corridors, depending
on the number of leads, 2-10 km offshore; sightings have
been made to 15 km offshore (Rugh and Cubbage 1980). No
bowheads have been observed in offshore leads between
Point Lay and Point Barrow during 4 yr of aerial surveys,
even though aerial survey time has been split equally between
offshore (to 100 km) and nearshore coverage (Braham and
Krogman footnote 2; Braham et al. 1979, 1980c, d). The
majority of bowheads have usually passed Point Hope by
mid-May (Foote footnote 21; Johnson et al. 1966) and occur
in peak numbers at this time at Point Barrow (Maher and
Wilimovsky 1963; Fiscus and Marquette footnote 18; Bra-
*'Foote, D. C. 1964. Observations of the bowhead whale at Pt. Hope, Alaska.
Unpubl. manuscr., 73 p. Natl Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv.,
NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.
2G. Fedoseev, Pacific Scientific Research Institute of Fisheries Oceanography,
Magadan, Nagaevskaya, 51, 685013, U.S.S.R., pers. commun. 28 February
1979.
ham and Krogman footnote 2; Braham et al. 1979, 1980c).
The migration along the northwest coast (Bering Strait to
Point Barrow) essentially covers the period mid-April to early
June, with a few whales migrating by thereafter, according
to our work to date.
Previous authors and numerous Eskimo whalers describe
the bowhead migration as occurring in three waves or pulses
of whales that pass by the northwest coast each spring (Foote
footnote 21; Marquette footnote 14). Examination of Figure
3 confirms that at least two pulses of whales migrated past
Point Barrow in 1976, 1977, and 1978. These pulses appeared
to occur in late April-early May and again near mid-May. A
third pulse may occur in late May or early June; but our data
either do not support this or the peak is small. The signifi-
cance of this bimodal, or trimodal, distribution is not clear,
but Eskimo whalers associate it with age, sex, and/or segre-
gation of cow-calf pairs from other adults in the population.
This cannot be confirmed from sightings and harvest data
collected between 1975 and 1980.
From Point Barrow the whales travel northeasterly into the
Beaufort Sea to Banks Island and Amundsen Gulf, Canada,
some by early May (Braham and Krogman footnote 2; Fraker
et al. 1978; Braham et al. 1979). Leads do occur closer to
shore, but no whales were seen in them (Figs. 10, 15, 18), nor
are the nearshore leads extensive. Further evidence in support
of the hypothesis that bowhead and white whales migrate
offshore in the Beaufort Sea in the spring independently pro-
posed by Braham and Krogman (footnote 2) and Fraker
(1977)*? is reported in Braham et al. (1979, 1980d). The por-
tion of the population which enters Canadian waters com-
pared with the number passing Point Barrow is unknown. In
the Canadian Beaufort Sea bowheads remain from May until
late August or September (Cook 1926; Townsend 1935; Foote
footnote 21; Sergeant and Hoek 1974; Fraker et al. 1978) be-
fore beginning the return autumn migration west. From June
to September bowheads are reported to frequent Amundsen
Gulf, Franklin Bay, Coronation Gulf, the east side of the
Mackenzie Delta, and various areas south of Banks Island
(Cook 1926; Townsend 1935; Anderson 1946; Porsild 1950;
Manning and MacPherson 1958; Sergeant and Hoek 1974;
Allen 1978; Fraker et al. 1978).
In August and September bowheads begin to leave the
eastern Beaufort Sea on their autumn migration back to the
Bering Sea (Cook 1926). The whales travel west in the south-
ern Beaufort Sea, where they are hunted during September
and October by Alaskan Eskimos from Kaktovik, Nuiqsut,
and Barrow (Brower 1942; Maher and Wilimovsky 1963;
Marquette footnote 14). Whales traveling this route have
been sighted or harvested near Herschel Island (Cook 1926;
Townsend 1935); Barter Island (Marquette footnote 14),
Cross Island?*; Colville River and Harrison Bay (Brower
1942); and Cape Simpson and Plover Islands (Braham and
Krogman footnote 2; A. Brower**). Their spatial distribution
from the shore to the pack ice during the autumn migration
is not known, but it is likely to be dependent on ice condi-
tions, food availability, and water depths. Sightings made in
**Fraker, M. A. 1977. The 1976 white whale monitoring program, Mackenzie
Estuary, N.W.T. Imperial Oil Ltd. Unpubl. rep., 73 p. F. F. Slancy & Co., Ltd.,
Vancouver, B.C., Can.
**T. Brower, Barrow, Alaska, pers. commun. 4 October 1977.
>A. Brower, Barrow, Alaska, pers. commun. 19 May 1978.
the Beaufort Sea since 1974 (Figs. 24-27, 30, 31) indicate
that bowheads are distributed from shallow coastal waters to
the pack ice and perhaps into the pack ice. The numerous
sightings in shallow water from Point Barrow to Smith Bay
(Fig. 30) seem to confirm the importance of the nearshore
areas to this species in the western Beaufort Sea.
From Point Barrow the animals appear to move westerly
to Herald Shoal and Herald and Wrangel Islands (Cook
1926; Townsend 1935; Bockstoce 1977), then south through
the Chukchi Sea into the Bering Sea. There is speculation by
Soviet scientists that bowheads pass to the Bering Sea by
traveling the western Chukchi Sea. Some animals appear to
move southwest along the northwest coast of Alaska past
Point Barrow to the Bering Strait, but this probably varies
with weather and ice conditions. Most in the population mi-
grate to the north side of the Chukotka Peninsula before
entering the Bering Sea (Fig. 2; Townsend 1935; Johnson et
al. 1981). Johnson et al. (1966) and F. Durham’® believed
that the fall migration through the Chukchi Sea followed an
offshore passage, since bowheads were not seen at Wain-
wright, Cape Thompson, Point Hope, or Kivalina in the
autumn during their studies. Simultaneous sightings of bow-
heads in the eastern Beaufort and western Chukchi Seas sug-
gest that 1) there is a division in the autumn migration, with
some whales leaving the Beaufort Sea perhaps as early as
July and/or August; and/or 2) there are two subpopulations
(i.e., that a later component of the spring migration moves
into the Chukchi Sea and remains there in summer not com-
pleting the migration into the Beaufort Sea). Preliminary
data presented earlier and in Braham et al. (1980b) suggest
the first hypothesis is the more likely one.
°F. Durham, University of California, Los Angeles, Calif., pers. commun. 21
September 1978.
154° 152°
————— ————————— 1 1
148°
Bowheads generally enter the northern Bering Sea in No-
vember and December, although sometimes they are seen in
late September, arriving in central Bering Sea wintering areas
in December-February.?’
Life History and Associated Information
Reproduction
Facts about the reproductive biology of the bowhead whale
are scant, though information gathered on animals harvested
by Alaskan Eskimos has provided opportunities to study this
species’ reproductive cycle. A summary of some estimated
reproductive life history data is reported in Table 2.
Sexual maturity is reached when animals attain lengths ex-
ceeding 1,100 cm. Durham (1979, footnote 10) reported that
males attain sexual maturity at 1,158 cm (38 ft) and females
at 1,220 cm (40 ft) at 4 yr of age. Marquette (footnote 14)
noted that two female whales taken at Barrow, one accom-
panied by a newborn calf and the other containing a fetus,
measured 1,525 cm (50 ft) and 1,730 cm (56 ft 6 in) long,
respectively. From the presence of corpora albicantia in
ovaries of 12 whales harvested in 1978 and 1979, sexual ma-
turity in females may be reached at about 1,200 cm (pre-
liminary findings); and adult females are larger than males
(Johnson et al. 1981). Age, and length at first pregnancy,
however, are unknown.
The mating period of the bowhead whale is not well known.
Durham (footnote 10) maintained that mating occurs in early
April before the whales reach Point Hope. Foote (footnote
21), however, observed what appeared to be copulatory be-
7D. Harry and C. Oozeva, Gambell, Alaska, pers. commun. 25 July 1978 and
25 February 1979, respectively.
146° 144° 142
BEAUFORT SEA
Figure 30.—Bowhead whale sightings in the Beaufort Sea, August through November 1974-78. Only sightings with a verified position were used. Most sightings occurred
in the last half of September. The dash line represents the 12 m depth contour.
=e Approximate edge of pack ice
Siege "September 1974
Banks
Island
a coat BEAUFORT SEA
ee <
4 =
I \ —
~
na |
Ra } . |
a: | ( }N
~~ |An ice : [ENS
K. island [e- : e
WrangelIsTand y r S * 4 \f ee Ses e UU ESth ham : Laote
a — NCE oe RN eee tee
g TS ING ANS ia ae
Herold Bank \ Sea / Paaray Herachelill <¥)
Ao < > = © om
gS ey i, 23
\ Bigass ES \ \ ~ Mackenzie River
CHUKCHI SIEZAPN " AAU
\ =e Sf =
x \
\
Point Hope \
\
\ CANADA
< \
ve
> Ss RY \
iS Sar i ALASKA \
eee \
\
\ \ \
\
Nome \
Unalokleet \
e \
\ \
St. errence L a, | \ \ \ j
175°W 170° 165° RY 160° 155° \ 150° NGS: 140
Br ES \ pes \
Figure 31.—Aerial survey tracklines flown by NMFS scientists, September 1974. Bowhead whale sightings in the Beaufort Sea are incorporated into Figure 30. (From
Fiscus and Marquette text footnote 15.)
havior in May, as whales passed Point Hope. Copulatory
behavior was also reported by Krogman (1977) and Everitt
and Krogman (1979) in May north of Point Barrow. Mating
behavior of Atlantic bowheads was reported in late summer
(Scoresby 1820). Possible copulation was witnessed on 16
March 1979 west of St. Matthew Island (Braham et al. 1980c).
Mating may therefore occur from late winter to summer,
with spring (April-June) being the more probable peak period.
Gestation is estimated to last 1 yr Scoresby (1820) believed
that bowheads have a 9-10 mo gestation period, while Esch-
richt and Reinhardt (1866) believed it to be 13-14 mo. Dur-
ham (1980, footnote 10) reported from observations of har-
vested bowheads taken at Point Hope and Barrow that the
gestation period is 12 mo. The actual length, however, is still
unknown. Minimum gross annual reproductive rate (calves
per total population) has been estimated at 1-5.6% (Davis
and Koski 1980; Cubbage and Rugh 1982; Marquette et al.
1982).
The calving period is reported to correspond with the time
of mating—early spring to early summer. Cows with calves
pass Point Hope and Point Barrow from mid-April to early-
June (Maher and Wilimovsky 1963; Marquette 1976; Braham
20
et al. 1979). Whalers in the eastern Arctic reported seeing
apparent cows with calves from early May to July (Gray
1886). Durham (footnote 10) believed that bowhead whales
in the western Arctic calve in early April. Eschricht and Rein-
hardt (1866) in the eastern Arctic Canada reported calving
occurring from late March to early May. Most researchers
agree that a single calf is born.
Although recognizing that parturition has never been ob-
served, our scant sightings of calves indicate that bowheads
probably give birth in spring, perhaps a few before (February-
March) but most during migration (April-June). Marquette
(footnote 14), summarizing the known data on calving, pro-
vided information that bowheads may calve from April
through August. Observations of calves in the spring (Bra-
ham et al. 1979, 1980b) and apparent copulatory behavior in
the late winter (Braham et al. 1980c) and spring (Everitt and
Krogman 1979) with no sightings reported for the autumn,
also indicate that the peak period of mating and calving is
March-June, with few calves being born in summer or
autumn.
The length of newborn calves has been measured at 305-
460 cm (10-15 ft) (Scoresby 1820; Durham 1980). Bodfish
Table 2.—Summary of some estimated reproductive life history data for bowhead whales.
Life history Parameter Area data
parameter value collected Reference
Sexual maturity
Males > 11m Chukchi Sea Durham (text footnote 11)
Females > 12m Chukchi Sea Durham (text footnote 11);
Johnson et al. (1981)
Calving and
mating period Mar.-May No. Atlantic Eschricht and Reinhardt (1866)
Mar.-June Bering to Beaufort Braham and Krogman (text footnote 2);
Seas Braham et al. (1979, 1980c);
Everitt and Krogman (1979)
April Chukchi Sea Durham (text footnote 11)
Apr.-June Chukchi Sea Maher and Wilimovsky (1963);
Marquette (1976)
Apr.-Aug. Western and Summarized in Marquette
eastern Arctic (text footnote 15)
May Chukchi Sea Foote (text footnote 23)
May-July No. Atlantic Gray (1886)
Gestation 9-10mo_ No. Atlantic Scoresby (1820)
12 mo Chukchi Sea Durham (1980)
13-14mo_ No. Atlantic Eschricht and Reinhardt (1866)
Lactation 5-6mo _ Beaufort Sea Marquette (text footnote 15)
12 mo No. Atlantic Slijper (1962)
711-85l1cm — Tomilin (1957)
(calf length)
Gross annual '1-5.6% Chukchi and Davis and Koski (1980);
reproductive
rate (GARR)
Arctic
Beaufort Seas,
and eastern
Canadian High
Cubbage and Rugh (1982);
Marquette et al. (1982)
‘Considered a minimum estimate when compared with estimates for other large baleen whales.
(1936) estimated the length of newborns at 305-366 cm (10-12
ft); Eschricht and Reinhardt (1866) reported lengths of 366 to
396 cm (13-14 ft). An apparent newborn calf taken at Barrow
20 May 1954 was measured by Eskimos at 300-350 cm (10-12
ft) (Marquette footnote 14). According to these findings the
average length of a newborn bowhead whale is about 360 cm
(12 ft). One bowhead calf with attached umbilicus taken at
Barrow in 1971 or 1972, was estimated (no measurements
made) by resident Eskimo whalers to be about ‘‘20 ft’’ long,
or 615 cm.** This is unusually large for a newborn, if the
estimate was accurate.
Information on the duration of the lactation period in
bowheads is scant and variable. Slijper (1962) reported the
lactation period to be 12 mo. Marquette (footnote 14) stated
that since lactating females have not been recorded in the
autumn take near Barrow, lactation may last only 5 or 6 mo.
Tomilin (1957) reported that lactation ends and calves are
weaned at a length of 711-851 cm (23-28 ft). Although incon-
clusive, it appears that bowheads have a 6-12 mo lactation
period. Since yearlings are not seen in very close association
with adults in spring, it seems unlikely that lactation lasts 1 yr.
Lactation in gray whales last approximately 4 mo (Rice and
Wolman 1971).
Based on the estimated lactation and gestation periods, the
calculated calving interval for female bowhead whales is at
least 2 yr and is likely to be longer. Large, long-lived mam-
mals are characterized in having calving intervals of more
than 2 yr (Fowler and Smith 1973; Goodman 1978).
*O. Leavitt and J. Adams, Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission, Barrow,
Alaska, pers. commun. 15 May 1978.
21
Food Habits
Nemoto (1976) classified the bowhead whale as a bottom
skimmer, and although individuals have been observed feeding
in shallow waters, bowhead probably feed throughout the
water column. A comprehensive study of bowhead feeding has
not been conducted; however, the small data base from the
available literature indicated that pelagic arthropods (euphau-
siids, mysids, pteropods, copepods, and amphipods) are the
prey species mostly taken, and, to a lesser extent, annelids,
molluscs, and echinoderms (Mitchell 1975; Marquette footnote
14; Lowry et al. 1978). Johnson et al. (1966) examined the stom-
ach contents of three bowhead whales taken by Point Hope Es-
kimos in the spring. The stomachs were empty and the third
contained fragmentary remains of polychaetes, reptantia, gas-
tropods, crustaceans, echinoids, and sand and gravel. Lowry et
al. (1978) analyzed the stomach contents of two bowhead whales
taken at Point Barrow in the fall of 1977 and found that together
they contained (by volume) 90.3% euphausiids (Thysanoessa
raschil), 6.9% gammarid amphipods (Gammarus zaddachi,
Acanthostepheia_ behringiensis, Monculoides zernovi, and
Rozinante fragilis), and 2.7% hyperiid amphipods (Para-
themisto libellula). Five bowheads taken by Kaktovik whalers
off Barter Island in autumn 1979 had primarily euphausiids
and copepods (Ca/anus spp.) in their stomachs (Lowry and
Burns 1980). A 1-yr study of bowhead feeding contracted by
us to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks,
determined that competition for food with Arctic cod may be
important in some years if food is limiting (Frost and Lowry
1981)??. Of the 17 bowhead whale stomachs and intestinal
tracts examined to date from whales landed at Barrow and
Kaktovik with discernable prey items present, the following
proportions in the bowhead diet were: Euphausiids 65%;
copepods 30%; hyperiid amphipods 1%; and all others, pri-
marily including amphipods, 4% (see Marquette et al. 1982
for a summary of Frost and Lowry footnote 29).
Behavior
Essentially all bowheads progress steadily through the near-
shore lead during the spring migration along the northwest coast
of Alaska, following a fairly straight course towards the north-
east (20 °-30° magnetic north). Since the NMFS ice camp studies
were initiated in 1976, < 1% of all bowheads were seen going
southwest in the spring (Carroll and Smithhisler 1980). The rare
exceptions occurred when the lead was obstructed by ice, or
when the whales were resting, feeding (presumably), courting,
mating, or breaching. Most whales progressed past the ice camp
at a rate of 1.9-7.5 km/h (1.0-4.0 nmi/h) depending on the
direction of the current; this rate of travel was confirmed by
studies at Cape Lisburne (Rugh and Cubbage 1980).
Bowheads do not travel in close association with one an-
other. Of 2,406 bowhead observations recorded between
1976 and 1978, 1,815 (75.4%) were singles, 470 (19.5%) were
in pairs, 105 (4.4%) were in groups of three, and 16 (0.7%)
were in groups of 4. There were noticeable peaks during the
course of the migration, sometimes related to ice conditions,
but also at times when the whales had free movement in the
lead.
When bowheads come to the surface to breathe, they usu-
ally break the water surface from 1 to 14 times, with each
surfacing (roll) interrupted by a short shallow dive. Exhala-
tion is not always observed during each roll. A completed
series of rolls is termed a rise (= total number of rolls visible
during a passage of one whale in front of an observer). The
mean number of rolls per rise recorded from 1975 to 1977
was 6.57 (SD = 3.08; n = 63), while the mean in 1978 was
6.53 (SD = 2.84; n = 41) (Carroll and Smithhisler 1980).
Each time a bowhead rolled it was on the surface for a
mean of 4.7 s (SD = 2.0). The average time below the sur-
face between blows (= rolls) was 10.8 s (SD = 5.2). From
this we calculated that the average amount of time a bow-
head was above the surface per rise was about 31 s. The
average duration of arise between the first roll and the sound-
ing dive was 1.5 min.
The duration of sounding dives varied from 3.0 to 26.7
min. The mean dive time recorded during the 1975-77 spring
seasons was 15.2 min (SD = 4.4). Of 51 dives times in 1978
the mean was 15.6 min (SD = 5.2). Combining these with
the 1.5 min mean rise time, a time of 17.1 min was calculated
for the complete cycle. On the basis of these data, we esti-
mate that during their migration near Barrow, bowhead
whales were visible above the water surface 3.1% of the time
within the field of view of our ice camp observer(s). Using
»*Frost, K., and L. Lowry. 1981. Feeding and trophic relationships of bow-
head whales and other vertebrate consumers in the Beaufort Sea. Final report to
Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Contract No. 80-ABC-00160, 106 p. Northwest and
Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA. Unpubl. manuscr., Alaska
Dep. Fish Game, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK 99701.
22
the same basic calculations, bowheads were visible to aircraft
observers for approximately 8.4% of the time they were
under observation.
The surfacing pattern of a cow and calf pair seems to be
related to the calf’s activity. Of three cow and calf pairs
timed, mean dive time was 6.6 min (range 5.9-7.0 min). Calves
often blew two times during each roll. Very small calves were
seen during the migration, usually traveling very close to the
accompanying adult. We judged these calves to be recently
born.
Bowheads move steadily through partially closed leads by
adjusting their diving and surfacing sequences to the size and
location of open water in the pack ice. They take fewer breaths
per rise and make shorter dives. A whale coming to a small
polynya will roll as many times as it has time, while traveling
at a normal speed, then dive when it comes to the distant
edge.
Occasionally, the ice cover was so complete that the whales’
progress was hindered and they were seen milling in polynyas.
It appears that the whales dive, search, and, if they do not
find another polynya close enough, return to the original
hole. Sea ice is more flexible than freshwater ice and both
bowheads and white whales push up on the ice to breathe,
forming hummocks. Bowheads have been heard exhaling
under the ice when no apparent open water is available.*°
Apparently bowheads are not always successful in finding
open water or in being able to lift pack ice to breathe. Tomi-
lin (1957) and Southwell (1898) both cited instances of bow-
heads perishing in the ice, and Sleptsov (1961) stated that
there was a mass mortality of several dozen bowheads in
Karaginsky Bay in 1932. Cook (1926) also reported bow-
heads perishing under ice during the autumn in the Beaufort
Sea. Unfortunately, the details of these events were not re-
ported.
Bowheads do not seem habituated to small boats. The
sound of an outboard motor will cause a bowhead to vacate
an area. The normal reaction to being pursued is escape.
If a bowhead is injured, it will often dive under the ice. Re-
action to airplanes flying overhead seems mixed. Few whales
have reacted vigorously to our presence when we fly between
130 and 300 m. On a few occasions we have flown above
whales at 65 m without obvious disturbance (c.f. photos in
Everitt and Krogman 1979 where altitudes were down to 65
m). In 160 encounters using a Coast Guard helicopter and
flying at elevations below 300 m only 17 (11%) bowheads ap-
peared to react noticeably to the aircraft noise. The same re-
sults occurred at altitudes down to 130 m (Braham et al.
1980c). It appears then that fright reaction to noise varies
greatly, depending upon the source, time of year, environ-
mental conditions, and activity of the animals. Surface noises
in water appear to cause more frequent fright reactions by
bowheads than noises originating above them in the air.
Occasionally bowheads show considerable exuberance. We
have observed them breaching, tail lobbing, flipper slapping,
swimming on their backs and sides, and demonstrating other
behavior. Along with numerous tail lobs and flipper slaps, a
whale seen off Point Hope in 1977 breached 57 times in 96
min. We do not know the significance of these kinds of
°F skimo whalers, pers. commun. 1976-79.
activities, but they may indicate communication (Rugh and
Cubbage 1980).
During the autumn migration bowheads may travel in
larger groups than in spring. Groups of 2-30 animals have
been recorded in the Canadian Beaufort Sea (Sergeant and
Hoek 1974), and several groups up to 20 animals each were
seen in September of 1974 and 1976 east of Point Barrow.
Unfortunately, the composition of these groups or their
specific activities during the fall migration are not known.
Occurrence of Bowheads in Outer
Continental Shelf Lease Areas
Outer Bristol Bay-St. George Basin
Bowhead whales probably occur in the southeastern Bering
Sea only during the late winter and early spring months when
the seasonal pack ice front extends south of lat. 60°N, and
then in low numbers. Only three sightings have been made in
this area between 1976 and 1980, with one of those in 1976 un-
doubtedly being a duplicate west of St. Paul Island (Fig. 29).
During the height of commercial whaling very few bowheads
were taken in the southeastern Bering Sea even at a time when
the population was at its apparent maximum size (Fig. 2,
Bockstoce and Botkin footnote 13). It seems unlikely that
animals would have been missed during commercial whaling
Operations as many ships traveled there enroute to Alaskan
and Siberian ports to the north. The St. George Basin-Outer
Bristol Bay area is beyond the central range of the bowhead.
Given our present state of knowledge, the Outer Bristol Bay-
St. George Basin OCS areas east of long. 170°W and south of
lat. 59°N do not include important or traditional habitat for
the bowhead whale. If during those years when ice extends to
its maximum southern limit (similar to 1976) and if unusual ice
or storm conditions force the whales to move farther southeast
than normal, then some whales are likely to occur here.
Navarin Basin
Townsend’s (1935) review of bowheads taken in the Bering
Sea clearly indicated that they formerly frequented the Navarin
Basin (St. Matthew Island to Cape Navarin along the conti-
nental shelf break) from April to July (Fig. 2). Under NOAA’s
Platforms of Opportunity Project we have received a few
observations of bowheads throughout the Bering Sea and,
although some effort has been expended near the Navarin
Basin, we have received no bowhead sightings from the area.
Several U.S. and Soviet aerial surveys have been conducted
during the spring in or near the area but no bowheads were
reported (Fedoseev 1966; Kenyon 1972?'; G. Fedoseev and V.
Golt’sev’’).
A recent icebreaker survey of bowhead winter distribution
(Braham et al. 1980c), indicated that bowheads spend the late
winter and early spring months in and adjacent to the Navarin
Basin. We made a systematic survey of the ice front in March
1979 from approximately 50 km east of Cape Navarin to south
*’*Kenyon, K. 1972. Aerial surveys of marine mammals in the Bering Sea, 6-16
April 1972. Unpubl. rep., 79 p. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish.
Sery., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115.
*G,. Fedoseev and V. Golt’sev, TINRO, Magadan, U.S.S.R., pers. commun.
12 September 1977.
23
of St. Matthew Island. Bowheads were observed in highest
densities on the west side of St. Matthew, as well as farther
north of St. Matthew Island, and west and southwest of St.
Lawrence Island (Fig. 29). Weather prohibited extensive cov-
erage of the Navarin Basin.
No bowheads were seen between St. Lawrence and St. Mat-
thew Islands in 1976 and 1977 but 109 animals were seen in
1979. During years of more extensive ice coverage bowheads
presumably occur farther south. Under these circumstances
they are likely to occur in and adjacent to the Navarin Basin in
greater numbers than we have seen. (Note: The Navarin Basin
was not surveyed in 1976 and 1977.) The frequency of occur-
rence and time spent by bowheads near Navarin, then, is prob-
ably related to ice conditions.
Norton Sound-Northern Bering Sea
The Norton Sound-northern Bering Sea (NBS) OCS lease
area, as it is presently designated to include St. Lawrence Is-
land and the eastern half of the northern Bering Sea from the
USA-USSR 1867 Convention Line to the Bering Strait at Cape
Prince of Wales, includes both important habitat for bow-
heads and areas where they do not normally occur. Bowheads
have not, prior to spring 1980, been reported east of long.
166°W into Norton Sound. West of long. 166°W bowheads
occur seasonally (Table 3).
The best available data indicate that the bowhead popula-
tion is found in the NBS during the spring, from late March
through May, and in the fall from November through Janu-
ary. They might be present in low numbers near the Bering
Strait from July to October, especially in September and Octo-
ber; however, Eskimo informants at Little Diomede and St.
Lawrence Islands have told us (Braham et al. 1980d) that bow-
heads are essentially absent in the NBS during the summer
(late June-October). An adult with calf was seen in July several
years ago, and two adult bowheads were reported near Punuk
Island (southeast of Northeast Point, St. Lawrence Island) in
June or July 1978, however this is an unusual occurrence.**
The bowhead whale spring migration around St. Lawrence
Island may be more complex than reported by us earlier (foot-
note 2). Bowheads apparently converge on the island from the
south exhibiting three general patterns: Two routes around the
west end of the island and one around the east end. Many
Eskimos at Gambell and Savoonga report that whales that
reach the island near Southeast Cape move west along the
south coast and then north past the west end of the island near
Gambell. Whales that arrive at the island at Southwest Cape
are said to migrate west away from the island across the
Anadyr Strait to the Siberian coast at Cape Chukotskii (lat.
64°1S'N, long. 173°W) and the village of Siriniki before con-
tinuing north on migration. This suggests that there are two
migration routes around the west end of St. Lawrence Island.
Data collected since 1976 on the occurrence and movements of
bowheads adjacent to St. Lawrence Island did not confirm this
hypothesis, primarily because few sightings were made. In
1979 bowheads were seen all across the Strait of Anadyr (Bra-
ham et al. 1980c); however, mild ice conditions may have
altered the migration pattern as described above.
**R. Silook, Gambell, Alaska, pers. commun. from another, unidentified
Eskimo from Savoonga, 16 August 1979.
Table 3.—Area use and timetable for the majority of the bowhead whale population in or adjacent to
proposed Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) lease areas of the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas.
Some exceptions exist, of course.
ies Temporal use Spatial use
lease
areas Present Absent Present Absent
St. George Basin- Essentially absent, a few may west-central Remaining?
outer Bristol Bay occur irregularly in the spring St. George Basin
in the western side
Navarin Basin Feb.-Apr. May-Jan. Unknown Unknown
Norton Sound- Mar.-June, ebe. Western half Norton
No. Bering Sea Oct.-Jan. July-Sept. Sound?
Hope Basin Apr.-June, Jan.-Mar., West of long. Kotzebue
(Chukchi Sea) Sept.-Dec. July-Aug. 164° W Sound?
Beaufort Sea Apr.-June, Dec.-Mar. Nearshore and
Aug.-Nov. July? offshore
‘If and when present.
*During most years.
‘East of long. 164° W.
The migration route along the west side of St. Lawrence
Island then takes the whales through the western portion of the
NBS OCS lease area west of an imaginary line from Savoonga
to Cape Prince of Wales. Whales in spring are on occasion
seen In open water east of Gambell to west of Savoonga (closer
to Gambell). Open water increases from east to west towards
the Chukotka Peninsula. We conclude that most bowheads
migrate through the western half of the NBS OCS lease area in
the spring, during average ice years. Eskimos also report that
some bowheads migrate around the east end of St. Lawrence
Island in the spring. We have only two'sightings at the east end
of the island since 1976. We do not believe that the east end of
the island is an important migration corridor. A more detailed
description of the spring migration is covered in Braham et al.
(1980b).
No records were found nor sightings made by us prior to
1980 of bowheads in the eastern portion (east of long. 166°W)
of the NBS OCS lease area (i.e., Norton Sound). More than 10
bowheads were observed in Norton Sound in May 1980; at
least 5 were seen near Norton Bay. These animals occurred
here as a result of an ice blockage in the Bering Strait which
halted their spring migration. Although a complete account of
the number and location of bowheads in Norton Sound during
the spring of 1980 was not available for this revised report,
Johnson et al. (1981) summarized the causes for the delayed
migration. The important point here is that, given the proper
conditions, bowheads can be found throughout the NBS OCS
lease area but in low numbers in Norton Sound.
The autumn migration pattern in the NBS is less clear than
for the spring, but apparently bowheads can be seen across the
north side of St. Lawrence Island, suggesting that the migra-
tion path in autumn may be more diffuse than in spring. Sev-
eral Eskimos at St. Lawrence Island have told us that bow-
heads do not migrate around the east end of the island in the
autumn but rather move by the west end.
The waters adjacent to St. Lawrence Island are important to
the survival of this population. The Bering Strait is also impor-
tant because the entire bowhead population passes through it
twice annually. The autumn period in the Bering Strait may be
more important than the spring because if bowheads were
limited or restricted from entering the Chukchi and Beaufort
Seas in the spring, they would still be able to feed throughout
24
the summer in the ice-free waters of the northern Bering Sea.
Townsend (1935) clearly showed that bowheads once occurred
in the NBS in the summer, a period thought to be a traditional
feeding time for the species. However, if restricted from mov-
ing into the Bering Sea in autumn, some, if not many bow-
heads might be trapped by winter freezeup.
In conclusion the following points can be made from our in-
vestigations: 1) In spring, bowheads are more likely to migrate
through the western portion of the NBS OCS lease area than
to the east. 2) The autumn-winter migration in the NBS prob-
ably occurs throughout most of the western NBS, but no in-
formation exists to help us predict how far east into outer Nor-
ton Sound they occur. 3) Inner Norton Sound (east of long.
166°W) is seldom used by bowhead whales, and does not in-
clude important habitat. 4) Waters adjacent to St. Lawrence
Island and the Bering Strait may be critical habitat areas for
the stability and survival of this population.
Hope Basin and Northeastern Chukchi Sea
Very little is known of the specific movements of bowheads
in the Hope Basin (south of lat. 69°N, east of long. 169°W)
and northeastern Chukchi Sea (north of lat. 69°N, east of
long. 160°W). From April to June, bowheads migrate north in
leads through the pack ice flaw zone from the Bering Strait to
an area stretching from Kivalina out to, on some occasions, 90
km offshore Point Hope. For additional specific details, see
Braham et al. (1980b) and Johnson et al. (1981).
The autumn migration through the northern Chukchi Sea
and Hope Basin to the Bering Sea appears to be farther off-
shore than during the spring. Bowheads are not known to fre-
quent Kotzebue Sound (east of long. 164°W) with any regu-
larity. Townsend’s (1935) plots of harvested whales (Fig. 2) in-
dicated that the western portion of the Hope Basin was more
heavily exploited, presumably a reflection of bowhead distri-
bution. We believe that bowheads are generally found west of
this lease area during autumn (September-November) (Braham
et al. 1980c; Dahlheim et al. 1980; Johnson et al. 1981).
In conclusion, bowheads frequent the Hope Basin and
northeastern Chukchi Sea during the spring and autumn
migration but do not appear to spend a significant portion of
lime there for purposes of reproduction, growth, or feeding.
The entire population migrates through the lease area from
April to June and are found primarily west of the lease area
from September to December.
The northeastern Chukchi Sea is important for both spring
and autumn migration, nearshore in the spring, and less so
during autumn. Bowheads probably feed in the northeastern
Chukchi Sea during autumn, most likely from September to
December. If some bowheads do not migrate into the Beaufort
Sea during the spring, then it seems likely that some whales oc-
cur west and perhaps southwest of Point Barrow from late
summer on, especially during years of heavy ice.
Beaufort Sea
For an assessment of the occurrence of bowheads in or adja-
cent to existing or anticipated OCS lease areas in the Beaufort
Sea, we consider the Beaufort Sea east of long. 150°W first,
then west to approximately Point Barrow. This was done
because 1) of the high probability that the western Beaufort
Sea will soon be considered for OCS leasing, and 2) we have
more site specific information on bowheads west of long.
150°W than east.
East of Longitude 150°W
The fact that few sightings (5) were made of bowheads with-
in or adjacent to the existing OCS lease area (approximately
between Colville River and Flaxman Island) between 1974 and
1978 makes it extremely difficult to determine what effects oil
and gas development may have on the population (Table 4).
Since 1974 we have made, or obtained, 53 fall sightings total-
ing approximately 323 animals for the entire Beaufort Sea
(Fig. 30). Only about 23% (a total of 15 animals) were made
east of long. 150°W. The paucity of sightings is directly pro-
portional to effort: We were not able to conduct extensive sur-
veys east of long. 150°W because of poor flying weather.
Table 4.—Sightings of bowhead whales within and adjacent to the existing Beau-
fort Sea Outer Continental Shelf lease area between long. 150° and 145° W within
the 12 m depth contour. Data compiled from aerial surveys conducted between
1974 and 1978. Positions are approximate.
No.of Latitude Longitude Information
Date Time animals (N) (W) source
21 Sept. 1974 1528 I(t)! 70° 13’ 146° 39’ NMFS
12 Sept. 1975 1130 1 70° 16’ 147°21’ NMFS
2 Aug. 1977 2300 1(t)' 70°35’ 150°00' S. R. Johnson?
21 Sept. 1977 1243 1 70° 30' 149°00' NMFS
21 Sept. 1977 1442 1 70° 20' 146° 20’ NMFS
(t) = tentative.
*LGL, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, pers. commun. 20 September 1977.
Results nevertheless indicate that bowheads do visit the OCS
lease area, as 38% of our sightings east of long. 150°W were
within or adjacent to the barrier islands between long. 145°
and 150°W (Fig. 30). Other evidence exists for the occurrence
of bowheads in the OCS lease area. In autumn 1921 Sara
Kunaknana’s (Kaktovik, Barter Island, Alaska) family took a
whale on Cross Island; and in 1935 they took another whale in
the ‘‘Prudhoe Bay area.’’** A whale was also taken near the
™G_ Jarrell, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, pers. commun. 15
October 1978.
25
east fork of the Canning River (east edge of OCS lease area) in
the fall of 1973.
Commercial whalers frequently followed bowheads during
the late summer and autumn months from the western Cana-
dian Beaufort Sea to the Chukchi Sea, yet few whales were
taken near the OCS lease area (Fig. 2). This may have been
because 1) few whales were present, 2) whales occurred in
areas where the whalers could not go (e.g., in shallow waters),
3) the whales moved swiftly through the area and thus were
difficult for the whalers to catch, and/or 4) whales occurred
farther offshore near or in the pack ice. The net result is that
we simply do not know how important the Beaufort Sea OCS
lease area is to the bowhead whale. However, if they are pres-
ent in any significant numbers, then they probably occur from
late August to mid-October. Unfortunately, we have very little
data to verify the precise timing and magnitude of their move-
ments. Recent sightings of bowheads in and adjacent to this
lease site by Ljungblad (1981) confirm that at least some bow-
heads frequent the nearshore environs in the eastern and cen-
tral Beaufort Sea in autumn. We do know a few bowheads
have been sighted or taken by Eskimos in the OCS area in the
past SO yr.
Eskimo whalers at Kaktovik, Barter Island, hunt bowheads
as the whales head west on their autumn migration. They in-
form us that the autumn migration is segregated roughly into
age classes. Smaller whales pass by early in the autumn and
larger whales, including cow-calf pairs, pass by later. Whales
are often first seen by late August, and later are seen near the
pack ice as the ice moves closer to shore in September and
October. The earliest whale taken in memory by Kaktovik
Eskimos was 21 August 1972. Bowheads are still going by
Barter Island as late as the whalers can get out in their boats
and are seen even when the sea is covered with slush ice as
late as mid-October.
West of Longitude 150°W
Bowheads apparently frequent the inshore waters of the
Beaufort Sea between Point Barrow and Smith Bay on an an-
nual basis (Figs. 24, 25, 30). Though we have spent more time
flying offshore (out to 225 km) than nearshore west of long.
150°W, most animals were sighted within only a few kilome-
ters of the coast. Most were seen in September (over 90%), but
sightings made in August (Fig. 22; A. Brower, Sr.**), and one
in November’® point out that the time of occurrence here, as
well as east of long. 150°W, covers a longer period than we
previously thought (Table 2). Again, the timing of migration
and occurrence undoubtedly varies somewhat among years.
We observed bowheads feeding east of Point Barrow to
Smith Bay during September 1976. The whales were observed
in shallow water, adjacent to the Plover Islands (Fig. 24).
The same occurrence and behavior was observed in 1974,°’
1975 (Ray in Braham and Krogman footnote 2), and 1978
(Braham et al. 1980d) (Fig. 30). On 21 September 1976, R.
8A. Brower, Sr., Barrow, Alaska, pers. commun. 20 December 1977.
36J. Burns, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska, pers.
commun. 20 December 1977.
7C, Fiscus, Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600
Sand Point Way NE., Bldg. 32, Seattle, WA 98115, pers. commun. 28 Septem-
ber 1976.
Everitt (NMML, Seattle) photographed three whales lying at
the surface with their mouths wide open at right angles to the
wind and tide. If they were feeding, and we believe they were
as this incident coincided with a large bloom and onshore
movement of euphausiids, then this is the first known case of
a whale passively feeding.
Eskimo whalers hunt for whales west of long. 150°W.
Four whales were taken in the channel between Tapkaluk
and Cooper Islands (lat. 71°51'N, long. 155°40'W) 29 Sep-
tember-8 October 1974. Whether the nearshore waters west
of long. 150°W are more important to this population than
east of long. 150°W has not been determined, but we believe
that they are.
Bowheads have been seen in the autumn in shallow water
of 3-12 m deep in the U.S. Beaufort Sea (Fig. 30, and Fraker
and Bockstoce 1980). Bodfish (1936) found bowheads consis-
tently at water depths < 40 m, but not deeper. Between
August and November 1974-78, we have scored 234 sightings
of bowheads in the Beaufort and eastern Chukchi Seas near
Point Barrow: 172 were in water < 12 m deep, and 62 in
water > 12 m (Fig. 30). The 12 m contour east of Point Bar-
row averages < 5 km offshore and 2 km off the Plover
Islands. More of our aerial survey effort was conducted off-
shore near the 12 m contour rather than nearer to shore. The
nearshore waters here appear to be more important for feed-
ing whales than are waters further offshore.
A Question of Species Identity: Bowhead,
Ingutuk, Right Whale?
During spring 1978 a controversy developed over whether
two species of right whale (of the genus Balaena = Eubalaena)
were present during the bowhead whale migration along the
northwest coast of Alaska. Discussion at that time centered
around the belief that a small, early spring ‘‘Arctic ice whale,”
called ingutuk, was the Pacific right whale, Ba/aena glacialis,
rather than the bowhead whale, Balaena mysticetus. This led
to the further concern that two endangered right whales, as
well as the California stock of gray whales, Eschrichtius ro-
bustus, seasonally frequent the Beaufort Sea OCS lease area.
The following evidence may resolve the issue (discussed in
detail in Braham et al. 1980a).
Historical Evidence
Nomenclature
The question of taxonomic placement of the ingutuk is not
new: Hadley (1915), Brower (1942), and Jim Allen in Bailey
and Hendee (1926) thought ingutuks were not the same species
as bowheads. The term inguftuwk, an Eskimo word thought to
refer specifically to young, fat, perhaps female, bowheads, Is
one of several terms commonly used to describe differing age
and/or size categories of agvik—the bowhead whale. The term
ingutuvuk (‘“‘one who carries a calf’’) describes a large female;
usingwachaek is a full-sized bowhead; kairalik, kivralivuk,
and kiyralivoak refer to different sizes of male bowheads**
**<Eskimo whaling at Barrow,’ an anonymously authored manuscript dated
12 December 1972, “*compiled by the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, Bar-
row, Alaska, for use by Dr. Floyd Durham.”
(Durham footnote 10; Rice 1977; A. Brower, Sr. footnote 25).
The profusion of terms describing these whales appears to be
based upon historic and cultural usage.
Geographic Isolation
Bowheads now in the western Arctic-Bering Sea stock may
be isolated from the Atlantic and/or Okhotsk stocks, and
morphologically differences among stocks may explain the ex-
istence of the ingutuk. Townsend’s (1935) and Bockstoce and
Botkin’s (footnote 13) harvest records indicate that while the
Okhotsk and western Arctic-Bering Sea stocks are now iso-
lated, this may not have been so > 100 yr ago. This would not
seem enough time for genetic-morphological changes to occur.
No diagnostic differences have been described between Atlan-
tic and Pacific stocks (Scoresby 1820; Eschricht and Reinhardt
1866; Scammon 1874), and although detailed recent morpho-
logical data are not available for comparison among stocks,
geographic isolation leading to new morphological types reen-
tering the population cannot be ruled out.
Biological Evidence
Morphological Features
Some 22 morphological and behavioral features have been
used to describe the differences between bowheads and ingu-
tuks. After evaluating these characters with results of our re-
search since 1973, and using information compiled by Durham
(footnote 10) and Foote (footnote 21), we found that 14
(61%) of the characters were not unique to imgutuks, and
that 4 (18%) of the characters could not be classified to
either. Only 4 (18%) seemed to be positive ingutuk character-
istics. These data do not exclude the possibility that the ingu-
tuk represents one extreme of normal variation. An occa-
sional whale with features usually attributed only to ingutuk,
usingwachaek, or kyralik have been reported (Durham foot-
note 10), suggesting that a range of features may occur with-
in individuals as well as within the (bowhead) population.
Sex and Size Categorization
There is belief by some Alaskan Eskimos that ingutuks are
young female bowheads. Prior to 1978 only one of many ingu-
tuks taken since 1962 was reported to be a male; all others were
females. Since 1978, three males have been reported. Since
1973 we have identified 14 ingutuks out of 112 bowheads taken
at Point Hope and Barrow. Ten of the ingutuks were female, 3
were males, and | was not satisfactorily sexed. The sex ratio of
non-ingutuk bowheads from 1973 to 1978 was 46 females to
53 males. Significantly fewer male than female ingutuks have
been taken, suggesting that ‘‘ingutuk’’ may be a female sex-
related trait or term. Jngutuks have been reported to be
smaller than bowheads; however, we found no significant
difference. This test included all size classes of usingwachaek
(= kiyralik), ingutuk, and ingutuvuk (= large ingutuk?).
Genetic-Biochemical Studies
We conducted biochemical and genetic studies on bowheads
taken from 1977 to 1979 to help clarify stock discreteness.
Electrophoretic analyses of liver tissues (nine whales) and
blood proteins (three whales), including one ingutuk in each
analysis, showed that much variability occurs within the popu-
lation and within at least one individual analyzed. The bio-
chemically variant animal, however, did not possess morpho-
logical characteristics attributed to inguruk. Conversely, the
ingutuk samples were not distinguishable from the other bow-
heads.
Conclusion
It is apparent that some bowhead whales look different
from others, even though it often takes an experienced observer
to make the distinction. The most apparent differences seem to
occur with the variant called ingutuk. The preponderance of
direct and circumstantial evidence suggests, however, that a
clear distinction between ingutuk and bowhead cannot always
be made when considering all morphological features over a
range of whale sizes.
Although detailed morphometric and genetic-biochemical
analyses of bowhead whales are far from complete, our re-
search to date leads us to conclude that the ingutuk is not a
species separate from the bowhead. The ingutuk is likely an
age and/or sex related trait with the most compelling ex-
planation that it is a yearling.
White Whales in Alaska
Abundance and Distribution
White whales of the northeastern North Pacific Ocean occur
from the Gulf of Alaska westward to the Bering Sea, north-
ward through the Chukchi Sea, eastward into the Beaufort Sea
(Klinkhart 1966; Scheffer 1972), and west into the East Sibe-
rian Sea (Kleinenberg et al. 1964).
The Gulf of Alaska population of stock,*’ an estimated
300-500 animals, appears to remain in or near Cook Inlet year-
round (Brooks 1963; Klinkhart 1966; Scheffer 1972; Alaska
Department of Fish and Game 1975*°; Harrison and Hall
1978). Murray and Fay (1979)*' found few animals present
during the winter months.
White whale sightings have been made, however, in the
Gulf of Alaska beyond the boundaries of Cook Inlet. Harri-
son and Hall (1978) document the sighting of a single animal
in Prince William Sound in March, and near Kodiak Island
in March and July. Calkins and Pitcher (1977)*? reported a
late May sighting of 21 white whales in Yakutat Bay. They
have been sighted as far south as Washington State (Scheffer
***Stock,’’ as defined here, is a geographic subunit of a larger interbreeding
population.
“Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1975. [Untitled.] Unpubl. manuscr.,
8 p. Alaska Dep. Fish Game, Juneau, Alaska.
“Murray, N. K., and F. H. Fay. 1979. The white whales or belukhas, Del-
phinapterus leucas, of Cook Inlet, Alaska. Unpubl. manuscr., 6 p. Coll. Environ.
Sci., Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99701.
“Calkins, D., and K. Pitcher. 1977. Unusual sightings of marine mammals in
the Gulf of Alaska. [Abstr.] Jn Proc. Second Conf. Biol. Mar. Mammals, San
Diego, Calif., 12-15 Dec., 1977, p. 53.
27
and Slipp 1948), although this is certainly beyond their nor-
mal range. The population in Cook Inlet and the Gulf of
Alaska is believed to be local and separate from Bristol Bay
and’ Bering Sea population(s). Even though the Alaska
Peninsula is evidently a barrier to the movement of these
animals from the Gulf of Alaska into the Bering Sea, it
seems plausible that interbreeding occurred in the recent
past.
White whales occurring in the Bering Sea compose resident
(or at least local to a defined area) and migratory groups. A
minimum of 1,000-1,500 has been estimated to occur in the
Bristol Bay-Kuskokwim Bay area throughout the year (Alas-
ka Department of Fish and Game 1957 footnote 40; Klink-
hart 1966). An additional, but unknown, number are thought
to winter in the Bering Sea north of Bristol Bay. These ani-
mals apparently migrate into eastern Siberian and western
Canadian waters in late spring and summer (Alaska Depart-
ment of Fisheries 1955, 1956; Kleinenberg et al. 1964; Ser-
geant and Hoek 1974; Braham and Krogman footnote 2;
Fraker footnote 23). An unknown portion of these migratory
animals summer in the Norton Sound-Yukon Delta area (Figs.
20, 32), while others continue north through the Bering Strait
(Scheffer 1972; Fay 1974).
White whales in the Chukchi Sea seem to be largely tran-
sients. Most migrate between the Bering and Chukchi Seas.
An unknown number summer in Kotzebue Sound, particu-
° f 1) | £ LL We
Chukchi Sea {yg i, Beaufort
lias al Sea
4H
7 e
ne as
po
||| C
SSL hie ean
Bering Sea ) ae
LH Loe Fe ‘aye
jee wy. Alaska Ed Le
Ea peel 1
L s 52
“EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE EEE EEE | >
174 Les eZ 14]
Figure 32.—Sightings of white whales during aerial surveys conducted between
the months of March and September 1975-77. Over 400 sightings were made of
approximately 2,000 whales.
larly in Eschscholtz and Spafarief Bays, and others along the
northwest coast. White whales have been reported in the
southern Chukchi Sea in February,*? which may mean that
some overwinter in the Chukchi Sea as well as the Bering
Sea.
The Beaufort Sea probably serves mainly as a summer
feeding area for white whales migrating from the Bering and
Chukchi Seas. Overwintering in the Beaufort and Chukchi
Seas, should it occur (Bailey and Hendee 1926), would most
likely be associated with the occurrence of some open water
during mild ice years.
The Bering Sea population of white whales in 1976 ex-
ceeded 9,000. Some 6,000 migrants from U.S. waters were
estimated in the Canadian Beaufort Sea (Fraker footnote 23;
Fraker et al. 1978) at the same time that perhaps 3,000 ani-
mals were estimated in U.S. waters along the northwest coast
of Alaska (Point Lay to Wainwright), Kotzebue Sound, Nor-
ton Sound, and Bristol Bay.** J. Burns (footnote 44) esti-
mated the Alaska population size of white whales to be near
16,000 individuals.
Migration
The spring and summer migration route of white whales in
the eastern North Pacific follows inshore and offshore leads in
the pack ice along the west and north coasts of Alaska, through
the Bering and Chukchi Seas, and corresponds closely to the
bowhead migration (Braham and Krogman footnote 2). Klein-
enberg et al. (1964) suggested that as the migrating animals
move through the Bering Strait, some continue along the north
coast of the Chukotka Peninsula. The bulk of the population
follows open leads east to Banks Island in Canada’s Northwest
Territories (Braham and Krogman footnote 2; Fraker footnote
23; Fraker et al. 1978). What percentage of the Alaskan popu-
lation(s) is represented in the western Chukchi and Beaufort
Seas is unknown, as is our knowledge of how many white
whales from the Soviet Union join those in United States
waters to migrate into Canadian waters each spring.
Spring migration occurs from March to early July, when
white whales follow leads along the flaw zone throughout the
pack ice, using offshore and nearshore leads. Moving north,
white whales leave the Bering Sea in March and April (Bailey
and Hendee 1926; Kleinenberg et al. !964; Johnson et al.
1966; Braham and Krogman footnote 2). Those summering
in Canadian Arctic waters pass through the Chukchi Sea in
middle to late April (Fiscus and Marquette footnote 18; Bra-
ham and Krogman footnote 2) and cross the Beaufort Sea
from May to June (Sergeant and Hoek 1974; Fraker footnote
23). Braham and Krogman (footnote 2), Fraker et al. (1978),
and Braham et al. (1979) proposed that the eastbound mi-
grants follow the 30-100 km offshore (varying annually) open
lead system northeast to Banks Island, Northwest Territories,
Canada. The animals then move south along the west side of
Banks Island to Amundsen Gulf and on to the Mackenzie
Delta (Fraker footnote 23). Whether they migrate directly to
Banks Island or to Amundsen Gulf consistently each year
“C. Ray, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., pers. commun. 20 April
1976.
**J. Burns, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska, pers.
commun. 7 November 1977.
i)
oo
probably depends on ice conditions. The earliest recorded
sightings of white whales near Banks Island were made in
mid-May (Stefansson 1943; Fraker et al. 1978; Braham et al.
1979); however, two bowheads were sighted on 8 May 1978,
near the northwest tip of Banks Island (Braham et al. 1979),
\iggesting that white whales may reach Banks Island even
before May. R. Goose**S saw 10 white whales off Holman
Island in late April 1979, earlier than in most years (1979 was
an unusual ice year because breakup was | wk-1 mo earlier
than expected). Our preliminary results indicate that some
white whales precede bowheads in their northward migration
by perhaps 1-2 wk, but again, this may vary among years.
The timing of the autumn migration west from Canada to
United States and Soviet waters is not well documented. De-
parture from the Canadian Beaufort Sea commences in Au-
gust and September (Sergeant and Hoek 1974; Fraker et al.
1978) with passage into the Bering Sea in December (Burgess
1973) or during the time of advancing ice. White whales
begin to appear regularly near St. Lawrence Island in the
Bering Sea from November to January and, on occasion, as
early as September and October as do some bowheads.*®
Though scant information is available on the autumn migra-
tion, Fraker et al. (1978) believed that those white whales
summering in Canadian waters return to the Bering Sea, and
that few, if any, move east into the eastern Canadian high
Arctic.
Identity of Stocks
From aerial surveys of the Bering Sea and western Arctic
Ocean since 1976, a composite of white whale sightings was
made (Fig. 31). In March and April white whales were seen
moving from the west central Bering Sea along the east coast
of Siberia and north along the northwest coast of Alaska. The
movements of the whales was directional—north. It is not until
May and June, when the pack ice breaks up along the coast,
that we began seeing white whales in areas where they appear
to summer: The northwest coast from Point Lay to Point Bar-
row, Kotzebue Sound, and Norton Sound. Sightings of white
whales in Bristol Bay in April, May, and June indicate that
these animals may be resident, or return to Bristol Bay after
having moved south with the advancing ice in the winter.
Animals observed in Bristol Bay, Norton Sound, or Kotze-
bue Sound during the summer may be either 1) late migrants
of a single Bering Sea population that remain in the shallow
waters or 2) stocks of an Alaskan and/or Soviet population.
It seems improbable that any major isolation would take
place, because there are no isolating barriers except, perhaps,
the pack ice; however, this is only seasonal. Except in 1977
and 1978, very few white whales have been seen along the
northwest coast of Alaska offshore during the summer; some
isolation between components of the Bering Sea population
thus occurs from May to November. Little work has been
conducted during the summer in the U.S. Arctic Ocean. If
those whales observed in the southern and east central areas
of the Bering Sea were to intermix with the main body of the
population to the north, then they could do so for 4 mo,
*SR. Goose, Holman Island, Northwest Territory, Canada, pers. commun. 23
May 1979.
**—D. Harry, Gambell, Alaska, pers. commun. 25 July 1978.
January through April. Without knowing the rate of ex-
change or the frequency of intermixing among years, it is
impossible to evaluate whether we are dealing with one, two,
or perhaps as many as four breeding stocks of white whales
in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. White whales which are har-
vested by Alaska Eskimos in summer, as in Kotzebue Sound
anaG adjacent bays, as well as those along the northwest coast
probably should be considered management stocks because
of the timing of harvest occurring simultaneously with repro-
duction.
Life History and Associated Information
Reproduction
The average age at sexual maturity for female white whales
in eastern Canadian Arctic waters has been reported to be 5 yr,
at 270 cm long or 85% full adult length (Doan and Douglas
1953; Brodie 1971; Sergeant 1973). Males, on the average,
were reported by Brodie (1971) and Sergeant (1973) to be sex-
ually mature at 8 yr of age. Kleinenberg et al. (1964) found
that female white whales in the eastern Siberian Arctic at-
tained sexual maturity at an average age of 3 yr, at 247-470
cm in length, compared with 2-3 yr and 380-450 cm for males
(Dorofeev and Klumoy 1936). Disagreement in calculated age
at sexual maturity between the Soviet and Canadian data
may be due to the poor state of knowledge concerning ageing
methodology at the time of the earlier studies.
Calving and mating apparently occur simultaneously from
May through August in eastern Siberian and Canadian
waters (Vladykov 1944; Laws 1959; Sergeant 1962, 1973;
Kleinenberg et al. 1964; Brodie 1971; Nishiwaki 1972). Simi-
larly, Belkovich (1960) found that in the Soviet Arctic (White
to Kara Seas) calving occurred from mid-June to mid-July,
later to the east. Calving in Alaska is believed to commence
in May or June (Klinkhart 1966); however, young calves are
commonly seen by coastal Eskimo residents as early as
March. Young of the year and neonatal calves have been
seen in April and May each of the 4 yr we have been studying
bowheads along the northwest coast of Alaska (Braham et al.
1979, 1980c). Small young of the year calves were observed
by the senior author 100 km north of Barrow on 28 Septem-
ber 1979. Calving may therefore occur into late summer or
early autumn. Mating locations in the eastern Bering Sea are
southeast Kotzebue Sound, Bristol Bay, Yukon Delta-Norton
Sound, and along the northwest coast of Alaska, particularly
near Peard Bay.
White whales are reported to give birth nearshore to single
calves averaging 150 cm in length (Doan and Douglas 1953;
Sergeant 1962; Kleinenberg et al. 1964). Newborn calves have
been observed in river estuaries of the eastern Canadian Arc-
tic (Brodie 1969; Sergeant 1973) and western Canadian Arc-
tic, specifically, the Mackenzie River estuary (Sergeant and
Hoek 1974).
Cows are believed to nurse calves for approximately 24
mo. Brodie (1971) and Sergeant (1973) estimated lactation
periods of 24 mo and 21 mo, respectively, for white whales in
eastern Canadian Arctic waters. Kleinenberg et al. (1964)
estimated the lactation period in Siberian Arctic waters to be
5-6 mo.
Given a gestation period of approximately 12-15 mo (Vlad-
ykov 1944; Belkovich 1960; Kleinenberg et al. 1964; Brodie
29
1971; Nishiwaki 1972; Sergeant 1973) and no more than a 2-
yr lactation, and assuming a cow nurses one calf at a time,
the reproductive cycle for white whales could last up to 3 yr.
Female white whales have been reported to mate on the aver-
age once every 2-3 yr (Degerboel and Freuchen 1935; Brodie
1971; Sergeant 1973).
Food Habits
White whales feed on fish, mainly, and invertebrates in estu-
aries, small streams, and rivers and in bays near the mouths of
rivers and on occasion, considerable distances up rivers. In
these areas they feed midwater to the bottom on organisms sel-
dom found deeper than 50 fathoms (Doan and Douglas 1953;
Sergeant 1962, 1968; Kleinenberg et al. 1964).
Prey consumed in the eastern Canadian Arctic (Vladykov
1946; Doan and Douglas 1953; Sergeant 1973) and Siberian
Arctic (Kleinenberg et al. 1964) are more thoroughly docu-
mented than in the western Canadian and Alaskan Arctic.
For the Hudson Bay-Churchill region Sergeant (1968) re-
ported that the most common species of fish consumed by
white whales was capelin, which spawns in shallow water
close to river mouths, July-August. River fish, ciscos and
pike, marine worms, and squid are also taken. In Hudson
Bay’s Whale Cove area, where capelin do not occur, white
whales forage primarily on decapod shrimp (bottom dwellers),
Arctic char, Greenland cod, and polar cod.
Sergeant and Hoek (1974) reported that prey taken by
white whales in offshore areas of the Beaufort Sea in de-
creasing order of importance were squid, fish, and crustacea.
The fish included lake herring and possibly Pacific herring.
Fraker et al. (1978) reported polar cod and squid to be com-
mon offshore species consumed by white whales in the Beau-
fort Sea and Amundsen Gulf. Prey species taken in the U.S.
Beaufort Sea are unknown, but Arctic cod is an abundant
species in the western Arctic. White whales resident to Bristol
Bay and Cook Inlet feed on five species of salmon, smelt,
flounder, sole, sculpin, blenny, lamprey, two types of
shrimp, and mussels, May to August (Alaska Department of
Fisheries 1955, 1956; Alaska Department of Fish and Game
1957). Prey taken by white whales in the coastal waters of the
Chukchi Sea vary greatly: Saffron cod, sculpins, capelin, rain-
bow smelt, Arctic cod, herring, whitefish, char, salmon,
suckers, cragonid shrimp, isopods, snails, octopus, gonatid
squid, and polychaetes (Lowry et al. 1980).*’
Group Composition
Group size varies seasonally. Large pods congregate in the
early spring until the breakup of the pack ice (Kleinenberg et
al. 1964). Once this occurs they form smaller groups of two to
four individuals which spread out over several kilometers until
the summering areas are reached (Kleinenberg et al. 1964;
Fraker footnote 24). However, larger groups have been ob-
served in April and May during our aerial studies and at Point
Barrow and Point Hope. In the summering areas the whales
assemble into large congregations for feeding and/or repro-
“Lowry, L., K. Frost, and J. Burns. 1980. Trophic relationships among ice-
inhabiting phocid seals and functionally related marine mammals in the Chukchi
Sea. Unpubl. final OCSEAP report, RU232, 58 p. Alaska Dep. Fish Game, 1300
College Road, Fairbanks, AK 99701.
ductive activities (Sergeant and Hoek 1974). Later on, due to
the gradual dispersal of food (primary fish), Klumoy (1939)
reported the whales divide into smaller groups and eventually
move toward the wintering grounds.
From a sample size of 2,002 white whales observed during
surveys since 1976, we calculated that mean group size was
4.8 (SD 0.43, n = 419). The preponderance of sightings oc-
curred in April and May. The mean group size estimated is
believed to be biased downwards because of a tendency to
split larger ‘groups’? when counting from an_ airplane.
Group size estimates made from our ice camps at Point Bar-
row varied from 4.8 to 12.4 (no variance estimate) depending
on lead width (extent of water). As open water increased,
group size decreased.
Kleinenberg et al. (1964) further detailed the composition
of groups with size variation (i.e., 10’s or 100’s of individ-
uals). In groups of 10, the animals were normally traveling
by two’s and three’s, some 10-30 m apart. Within these
groups of 10 they found that 1) adults always kept apart; 2)
adults often formed the majority of the herd; and 3) the few
young that were present remained in the middle of the larger
group structure. In groups of 100’s, large adult males, form-
ing 51.2% of the herd, were followed by females with calves
(Dorofeev and Klumov 1936; Arsenyev 1939). Kleinenberg et
al. (1964) reported that females were often accompanied by
one to three ‘‘young’’ (presumably gray-colored subadults).
White whales are dark brown to gray in color up to about
6 yr old. Sexual maturity occurs at approximately 5 yr for fe-
males and 8 yr for males (Sergeant 1973). Color change can
thus be used to estimate the minimum size of the subadult
population. In 1977, we scored 1,699 white whales (including
7 newborn calves) as to color phase during their annual
spring migration past Point Hope, Alaska. It was possible to
make a classified count of 507 animals: 316 (62.3%) were
white; 166 (32.7%) were gray; and 25 (4.9%) were transi-
tional between gray and white. This resulted in an approxi-
mate adult to subadult ratio of 2:1. From aerial surveys in
1976 and 1977, a ratio of 14:1 (white:gray phase) was esti-
mated. We believe the aerial results to be an overestimate
because of the short amount of time to count and confirm
the color of an animal from the air (for these data years
only), and the ice counts to be an underestimate because of
the light reflection off gray ice or dark water onto a light
object making the object appear darker than actual. Also, we
assume that both methods were an unbiased estimate of the
population(s).
RECOMMENDATIONS
Actions Based on Existing Knowledge
Based on our present state of knowledge of the distribu-
tion and biology of the bowhead whale in the Bering, Chuk-
chi, and Beaufort Seas, we recommend that serious consider-
ation be given to removing or drastically limiting oil and gas
development in four important (perhaps critical) habitat
areas: 1) The northern Bering Sea around St. Lawrence Is-
land. 2) The Bering Strait. 3) Northwest coast of Alaska,
Cape Lisburne to Point Barrow. 4) The western U.S. Beau-
fort Sea from long. 150° W to Point Barrow.
30
Designation of these areas as of primary importance to the
species is partly based on the fact that we have better infor-
mation for these areas than for others. Unfortunately, we
have less good information for areas which might prove to be
of particular importance, e.g., the eastern Beaufort Sea (in-
cluding the present OCS lease site), Hope Basin, and the
Navarin Basin. However, the eastern Beaufort Sea and the
Hope Basin appear to be transition zones for the whales dur-
ing their annual migration rather than vital places where they
would be most vulnerable. Additional research, particularly
in the Beaufort Sea, is needed to verify this point.
Without precedents regarding effects on whales of oil-
related development activities, it is difficult to assess jeopardy
to this population, as required by Section 7 of the U.S. En-
dangered Species Act of 1972. However, we can predict the
times and locations where the population, or at least indi-
viduals, would be vulnerable to an oil spill or other possible
disturbing activities. The times are outlined by OCS lease
area in Table 3. Specifically the above described areas are of
greatest significance because we believe bowheads engage in
two critical life history phases there—reproduction and feed-
ing. They also migrate directly through these areas twice
annually.
Our conclusions are based on 2 yr of OCSEAP research,
and two additional years of NMFS studies where, in both
cases, we were limited by weather, time, and budget to com-
pletely cover all areas visited by bowheads. It is, of course,
difficult to draw conclusions on the importance of areas and
times within their range where few data exist.
We are less certain about the times and areas where white
whales might be vulnerable. Certainly inner Kotzebue Sound
appears to be an important summering area for reproduction
and feeding. The northwest coastal waters from Point Lay to
Point Barrow appear also to be an important area for white
whales, although this may vary among years. But again, be-
cause we do not know how many stocks of white whales we
are dealing with, site specific vulnerability is particularly dif-
ficult to assess.
White whales appear to occur farther offshore in the U.S.
Arctic Ocean than bowheads; perhaps they are less vulnerable
to nearshore development. Some do, however, occur very
near shore in the eastern Bering and Chukchi Seas during the
spring and summer. Because some Eskimo subsistence de-
pends upon both species, we urge that site specific studies
related to interaction between whale, subsistence activities
(hunting requirements), and oil development activities be
undertaken or continued.** We further urge that ecological
studies be conducted, placing greater value on both species
habitat requirements and environmental (physical and bio-
logical) interaction than previously suggested or conducted.
“*Since this paper was written two important studies were conducted on be-
havior and distribution of bowheads which we recommend to the reader. 1)
Wursig, B., C. Clark, E. Dorsey, M. Fraker, and R. Payne. 1981. Normal be-
havior of bowheads. Jn W. J. Richardson (editor), Behavior, disturbance
responses and feeding of bowhead whales in the Beaufort Sea, 1980, p. 21-90.
Chapter in unpublished report from LGL Ecol. Res. Assoc., Inc., Bryan, Tex.,
for U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Wash., D.C. 2) Fraker, M., C. Greene,
and B. Wursig. 1981. Disturbance responses of bowheads and characteristics of
waterborne noise. /n W. J. Richardson (editor), Behavior, disturbance responses
and feeding of bowhead whales in the Beaufort Sea, 1980, p. 91-195. Chapter in
unpublished report from LGL Ecol. Res. Assoc., Inc., Bryan, Tex., for U.S.
Bureau of Land Management, Wash., D.C.
Proposed Research Needs
With regards to potential problems or questions of concern
to the BLM, future bowhead whale research needs include
consideration of direct and indirect effects of oil pollution
and developmental activities with potential first-order effects,
such as: 1) Intestinal disturbances resulting from oil inges-
tion; 2) irritation and deterioration of skin and eye tissues; 3)
impairment of thermal regulation; 4) fouling of baleen
plates; 5) inhalation of oil and congestion of the lungs; 6)
noise interference with intraspecific communications; and 7)
threat to traditional migration routes, calving areas, and/or
feeding grounds. The most critical second order effects
would be destruction of food supplies through contamination
or alteration of the marine habitat, should it occur.
The objectives of any research in and near OCS lease areas
should be to determine 1) the frequency of occurrence in and
adjacent to specific lease sites; 2) the magnitude of, or com-
poment of, the population (including sex and/or age class
segregation) frequenting the lease areas; 3) the reasons why
whales occur in certain areas (e.g., apparent annual feeding
nearshore east of Point Barrow in September); and 4) the
studies (direct and indirect) that could best address potential
noise, oil, and traffic interference problems. Because destruc-
tion of preferred wildlife habitat is a common result of man’s
activities, general studies of the marine environment as it
now exists in Alaska would be of primary importance. Pre-
sumably these kinds of studies will continue on a lease site
basis as lease sale scheduling proceeds from site to site.
The following is a list of proposed research topics with
regard to bowheads and white whales. Results from these
studies should provide at least the minimum information
needed to make management decisions, especially where re-
lated to the requirements of the Endangered Species Act.
These studies admittedly relate primarily to occurrence and
direct effects because, we believe, these are the most obvious
studies for which answers might be readily obtained. Most
have been recommended previously in various meetings and
documents since June 1978.
Bering Sea
1) Study whale movements and habits of whales associated
with the movement of ice during breakup in spring and forma-
tion in autumn around St. Lawrence Island.
2) Study calving and feeding near St. Lawrence Island in the
spring and feeding in the autumn, especially north of the island.
3) Study habitat use patterns in the Navarin Basin during
late winter.
Chukchi Sea
1) Determine if bowhead and white whales migrate directly
into the western Chukchi Sea during the late spring or summer
from the NBS, and if they migrate from the Beaufort Sea into
the Chukchi Sea between June and September. This informa-
tion is necessary to determine if the entire population enters
the Beaufort Sea and, thus, might be vulnerable to oil develop-
ment related activities along the North Slope.
2) Ascertain whether the Hope Basin area supports bow-
heads for feeding in late autumn.
31
3) Study presence of white whales in Kotzebue Sound and
adjacent bays (e.g., Escholtz Bay) and the northwest coast to
relate habitat use and seasonal dependency. Population seg-
regation or stock identification might be studied using elec-
trophoretic analyses. Life history information is essential.
4) Determine which areas of the northeast Chukchi Sea
that bowhead whales are most likely to feed in and migrate
through in the autumn.
Beaufort Sea
1) Determine the frequency distribution of whales from the
shore to the pack ice in the summer and autumn. It is essential
that we know what component of the migrating population
will be in or near the OCS area. For example, do all whales
move offshore (i.e., near the ice edge), or nearshore through
the lease area? A knowledge of the spatial distribution is neces-
sary to determine how many individuals in the population
might be vulnerable. Changes in ice conditions and relative
movement of whales to ice is an important corollary study.
2) Conduct aircraft and/or vessel surveys in the western
Canadian Beaufort Sea during the summer, principally in
Amundsen Gulf, to further determine if the relative magni-
tude of the bowhead population here is similar to that esti-
mated at Point Barrow in the spring. Again, this is important
in order to assess what portion of the population might be
vulnerable. Related behavior and feeding studies are also
recommended.
3) Define the importance of the U.S. Beaufort Sea for
bowhead feeding. Food habit studies and sample collecting
of zooplankton should be done over a wide area of the Beau-
fort Sea. General trophic interaction studies are important
too. This is important baseline information because we have
no idea how, or if, animals respond to changing resource
(prey density) patterns between the shore and pack ice, or
even east to west in the Beaufort Sea. General biological
oceanographic information is paramount to understand the
Beaufort Sea ecosystem; such information is presently lack-
ing.
Non-site Specific Studies
Noise effect studies should be conducted. Additional detailed
studies on behavior and response vocalizations might also help
determine the whales’ sensitivity to man’s activities. Further
analysis of historical Eskimo and Yankee shore-based whaling
records should be made to establish and to evaluate total mor-
tality. Since the euphasiids (e.g., Thysanoessa raschit) and cope-
pods (Calanus spp.) are the principal prey taken by bowheads,
a detailed study of the life cycle and quantitative occurrence of
these species should be made in the Arctic, especially in the
Beaufort Sea nearshore from Barter Island to Point Barrow,
Amundsen Gulf, and eastern Chukchi Sea. Naturally, the life
histories and quantitative determination of other prey species
and competing predators should be made as other important
bowhead food items are discovered. Concurrent biological
oceanographic studies should support the laboratory work.
Oil effects studies, after life cycle studies, should follow.
The aforementioned proposed studies are only generally
discussed here. Specific studies should be thoroughly re-
viewed for scientific relevance and management alternatives
considered. Results from these, or similar studies, will pro-
vide a preliminary basis for making timely decisions concern-
ing further research and possible implications of OCS de-
velopment. Additional much needed research on life history
parameters should also be vigorously pursued.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
National Marine Mammal Laboratory personnel who con-
tributed to our 1975-77 research were: Teresa Bray, Robert
Everitt, Clifford Fiscus, Ed Iten, Gordon Jarrell, Willman
Marquette, Mary Nerini, John Patee, David Rugh, Nancy
Severinghaus, John Smithhisler, Ronald Sonntag, John
Brueggeman, Richard Foust, Beth Hacker, Leola Hietala,
Evelyn Magee, Bruce McAlister, Patrick McGuire, Joan
McPhee, Keith Parker, Carl Peterson, Rick Punsly, Michael
Tillman, and Joanne Wejak. Sam Waterman, Rae Mitsuoka,
Roger Pearson, Ethel Zweifel, Jim Peacock, Nancy Williams-
Nelson, and Carol Hastings of the Northwest and Alaska
Fisheries Center, NMFS, Seattle, Wash., provided valuable
assistance with editing, graphics, and duplication. Unknown
referees during the publication review process are thanked
for their assistance.
Two Alaskan Eskimo whaling captains and their crews who
greatly assisted us during the 1976 and 1977 spring seasons
were Robert Aiken and Arnold Brower, Sr.
We were assisted in securing aircraft and ice-based logistic
support from the Office of Aircraft Services, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska, and the Naval Arctic
Research Laboratory, University of Alaska, Barrow, Alaska.
Special appreciation is extended to Francis Fay, Institute
of Marine Sciences, University of Alaska, Fairbanks; John
Burns, Kathy Frost, and Lloyd Lowry, Alaska Department
of Fish and Game, Fairbanks; Carl Grauvogel, Alaska De-
partment of Fish and Game, Nome; Donald Ljungblad,
Naval Oceans Systems Center, San Diego, Calif.; and Mark
Fraker, LGL Ltd., Sidney, British Columbia, Canada, for
their advice and help during various aspects of our research.
This study was partially funded by the Bureau of Land
Management, U.S. Department of the Interior, under an in-
teragency agreement with the National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, as
part of a multiyear program managed by the Alaska Outer
Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program
(OCSEAP) office in Juneau, Alaska. We particularly appre-
ciated the help and patience extended to us by Rodney
Swope, Donald Day, and George Lapine of that office.
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APPENDIX I
Aerial surveys flown during 1975-77 as part of OCSEAP Research Unit
69. File identifiers are those used on both Environmental Data Service
OCSEAP 027 format and National Marine Mammal Laboratory format. Mileage
(approximate) is in kilometers. Wnt-Wainwright; RE-return.
File Survey Description
identifier date (survey origin/area surveyed)
1. Sep 6-Sep 29,'75 Total miles surveyed: 10,945. Total hours flown: 47:10.
175249 6 Sep Barrow, Wnt., RE / C. Simpson / coast
175252 9 Sep Barrow, RE / C. Simpson / coast
175255 12 Sep Barrow, Deadhorse, RE / coast
175257 14 Sep Barrow, Barter I., Deadhorse, RE / coast
175258 15 Sep Barrow, Prudoe Bay, Lonely / coast
175259 16 Sep Lonely, Barrow / coast
175263 20 Sep Barrow, Barter I., RE / coast
175266 23 Sep Barrow, Pt. Lay., Icy Cape, RE / coast
175267 24 Sep Barrow, RE / C. Simpson
175269 26 Sep Barrow, Pt. Lay, RE / coast
175270 27 Sep Barrow, RE / coast
175272 29 Sep Barrow, Barter I., Barter I., RE / Herschel I.
2. Oct 9-Oct 14,'75 Total miles surveyed: 4,695. Total hours flown: 18:25.
175282 9 Oct Nome, RE / S. Chukchi Sea
175285 12 Oct Nome, RE / N. Bering Sea, St. Lawrence I.
175287 14 Oct Nome, Anch. / St. Lawrence I., St. Matthew I.,
Nunivak I.
3. Mar 15-Mar 21,'76 Total miles surveyed: 4,380. Total hours flown: 19:52.
176075 15 Mar Nome, RE / St. Lawrence I., Gulf of Anadyr
176078 17 Mar Nome, RE / St. Lawrence I., Bering St.
176079 19 Mar Nome, RE / N. St. Lawrence I., SW. St.
Lawrence I.
176081 21 Mar Nome, RE / N. St. Lawrence I.
4. Apr 6-Apr 23,'76 Approx. total miles surveyed: 17,140. Total hours flown:
176097 6 Apr King S., RE / Bristol Bay, ice front, Cold Bay
176099 8 Apr King S., RE / Central Bristol Bay
176100 9 Apr King S., RE / Bristol Bay
176103 12 Apr King S., RE / Central Bristol Bay
176104 13 Apr King S., Nome/Bristol Bay, St. Lawrence I.
176106 15 Apr Nome, King S. / St. Lawrence I., St. Matthew I.
Bristol Bay
176108 17 Apr King S., RE / Central Bristol Bay
176109 18 Apr King S., RE / Central Bristol Bay
176110 19 Apr King S., Bethel, Nome / Bristol Bay, St.
Lawrence I.
35
HERO
File
identifier
176111
176112
176113
176114
Survey
date
20
21
22
23
Apr
Apr
Apr
Apr
5. Apr 30-May 14,'76 Total
17612]
176122
176124
176129
176130
176133
176135
30
]
3
8
9
12
14
Apr
May
May
May
May
May
May
6. May 15-May 31,'76 Total
176136
176140
176141
176143
176145
176149
176152
15
19
20
22
24
28
3]
7. Jun I-Jdun 5,'76
176153
176156
176157
8. Jun 8-Jun 14,'76
176160
17616]
176162
176163
176164
176165
176166
]
4
5
May
May
May
May
May
May
May
Total
Jun
Jun
Jun
Total
Jun
Jun
dun
Jun
Jun
Jun
Jun
9. Jun 18-Jun 20,'76 Total
176170
176171
276172
18
19
20
Jun
Jun
Jun
Description
(survey origin / area surveyed)
Nome, RE / St. Lawrence Island, Bering St.
Nome, RE / St. Lawrence I., Bering St., Pt.Hope
Nome, RE / St. Lawrence I.
Nome, Anch / Norton Sound
miles surveyed: 4,600. Total hours flown: 25:17.
Barrow, RE / coast, Pt. Hope
Barrow, RE / Wainwright, offshore
Barrow, RE / Icy Cape
Barrow, RE / Shorelead
Barrow, RE / N.E. offshore
Barrow, Barter I., Deadhorse, RE / Leads, fast
Barrow, RE / N.E. offshore
miles surveyed: 2,605. Total hours flown: 14:43.
Barrow, RE / Shorelead W.
Barrow, Pt. Hope, RE / coast
Barrow, RE / N.E. lead system
Barrow, RE / lead W., N.E. pack ice
Barrow, RE / shorelead W.
Barrow, Peard Bay, RE/shorelead, fast ice
Barrow, RE / shorelead W.
miles surveyed: 1,575. Total hours flown: 7:21.
Barrow, Pt. Hope, RE / coast
Barrow, RE / C. Simpson and N.E.
Barrow, RE / coast W.
miles surveyed: 8,025. Total hours flown: 34:30.
Anch., Nome/Norton Sd.
Nome, RE / St. Lawrence I., Bering St.
Nome, RE / N. Bering Sea, S. Chukchi Sea
Nome, Kotz. / N. Bering Sea, S. Chukchi Sea
Kotz., Nome / Bering St., N. St. Lawrence I.
Nome, RE / Norton Sd., St. Lawrence I.
Nome, King S. / Bering St., E. Bering Sea
miles surveyed: 2,930. Total hours flown: 15:26.
Barrow, RE / offshore
Barrow, RE / nearshore leads
Barrow, Barter I. Prudoe Bay, RE / offshore,
fast ice
36
File
identifier
Survey
date
Description
(survey origin / area surveyed)
10. Aug 17-Aug 26,'76 Total miles surveyed: 8,830. Total hours flown: 39:22.
176230
176231
176232
276233
276234
176235
176236
176237
176238
176239
11. Sep 20-Sep 26,'76 Total
176264
176265
176266
176268
176270
12. March 31-Apr 3,'77 Total
177090
177091
177092
177093
13. Apr 19-Apr 26,'77 Total
177109
177113
177116
14. May 11-May 14,'77 Total
177131
177132
177134
15. May 21-May 30,'77 Total
17714]
177150
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
20
21
22
24
26
31
]
2
3
19
23
26
1]
12
14
21
30
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Aug
Sep
Sep
Sep
Sep
Sep
Mar
Apr
Apr
Apr
Apr
Apr
Apr
May
May
May
May
May
Deadhorse, RE / S. Beaufort Sea
Deadhorse, RE / S. Beaufort Sea
Deadhorse, Barrow / S. Beaufort Sea
Barrow, RE / S. Chukchi Sea
Barrow, Kotz. / S. Chukchi Sea
Kotzen REE /mKotz Sd:
Kotz. 2eRE Vaikotzs Sd.
Kotz., Nome / Bering Sea
Nome, RE / St. Lawrence I.
Nome, Bethel / Norton Sd.
miles surveyed: 2,183. Total hours flown: 9:49.
Barrow, C. Lis., RE / coast, bird survey
Barrow, RE / C. Simpson, N. pack ice
Barrow, RE / C. Simpson, N.W. pack ice
Barrow, RE / C. Simpson, N.E. pack ice
Barrow, RE / C. Simpson
miles surveyed: 4,540. Total hours flown: 18:18.
Anch., Nome / S. Norton Sd.
Nome, RE / Pt. Hope, Kotz. Sd.
Nome, RE / St. Lawrence I.
Nome, RE / N. Norton Sd., N. St. Lawrence I.
miles surveyed: 325. Total hours flown: 1:17.
Barrow, RE / Pt. Hope
Barrow, Pt. Hope / coast, fast ice
C. Lis., Barrow / coast
miles surveyed: 3,875. Total hours flown: 12:14.
Anch., Nome / N. Norton Sd.
Nome, RE / Pt. Hope, Kotz. Sd.
Nome, Bethel / Norton Sd., Nunivak I.
miles surveyed: 1,317. Total hours flown: 5:45.
Barrow, RE / Barter I.
Barrow, RE / Northeast leads
37
File
identifier
Survey
date
Description
(survey origin / area surveyed)
16. Aug 26-Oct 13,'77 Total miles surveyed: 6,500. Total hours flown: 27:17.
177238
177241
177244
177248
177251
177253
177257
177276
W279
177286
26
29
Aug
Aug
Sep
Sep
Sep
Sep
Sep
Oct
Oct
Oct
Barrow,
Barrow,
Barrow,
Barrow,
Barrow,
Barrow,
Barrow,
Barrow,
Barrow,
Barrow,
C. Simpson, RE / coast, Oarlock Isl.
RE / coastal to Lonely, Mid-Oarlock I.
C. Simpson, RE / coast, Oarlock I.
RE / N. to ice, E. to Lonely, coastal
Barter Isl., RE / offshore E. to Bord
RE / N.W. Chukchi Sea
RE / N.W. Chukchi Sea
RE / NN. to tce, Es, coastal
RE / N.E. and coastal
C. Simpson, RE / coast.
38
APPENDIX II
Aerial survey tracklines flown September 1975-October 1977
x
Alaska
Gulf of
Alaska
> «o
174 SS ley 141
39
Meru pt |
iver Ali) Hanan pibey ae
ie # I a a # ign 4A
}- a Weel
= a
| ;
. iS ae
rs
‘ meee i
oe E rs a
ke nat
te
- | )
~ ‘ |
os aps
4 Rae
ie
ee ee
i
NOAA TECHNICAL REPORT NMFS
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Dr. William J. Richards, Scientific Editor
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National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA
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Copies. Fifty copies will be supplied to the senior author and
100 to his organization free of charge.
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